Buddhist Psychology

 

The Concept of Personality Revealed
Through The Pancanikaya

Ven. Thich Chon-Thien

Institute of Buddhist Studies
Saigon, Vietnam, 1995

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Part Three: The Concept of Personality Revealed Through The Pancanikaya

 

III.1 Chapter 1

Contemporary Personality Theories

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As described in Part two, the truth of man and the world is Dependent Origination which says that a man, or the world, is conditioned, selfless, and belonging to nobody, it is but the operation of the five aggregates (Pancakkhandha). So what is called "Concept of personality" is just empty. The author’s effort is not to search for any personality theory revealed through the Pancanikàya, but to observe individuals’ mental, oral and bodily activities, which he calls the operation of "Name - and - Form" element or of the five aggregates, to find out the way of life leading to happiness for individuals in the here - and - now. However, he believes some of contemporary personality theories in education remain useful in helping man understand others’ behaviours and some psychological aspects, he comes to take a review of them for their improvement before entering into the deep operation of the aggregates

Most of personality theories applied in modern schools were formed in the second part of nineteenth century A.D. and in the twentieth century A.D. All of them aiming at discovering what a man really is are relatively practical and useful. Here, the author only mentions the typical theories through three basic steps: concept of personality, features of personality and his reviews of them.

III.1.1 CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY

Calvin S.Hall and Gardner Lindzey in their book titled, "Theories of Personality", wrote:

" ... Allport (1937) in an exhaustive survey of the literature extracted almost fifty different definitions that he classified into a number of broad categories. Here we will concern ourselves with only a few of these definitions.

It is important initially to distinguish between what Allport calls biosocial and biophysical definitions. The biosocial definition shows a close correspondence with the popular use of the term as it equates personality to the "social stimulus value" of the individual. It is the reaction of other individuals to the subject that defines the subject’s personality. One may even assert that the individual possesses no personality but that provided by the response of others. Allport, ..., suggests that a biophysical difinition that the personality firmly in characteristics or qualities of the subject is much to be preferred. ...

Other definitions place primary emphasis upon the integrative or organizational function of personality... In other definitions, personality is equated to the unique or individual aspects of behavior...

Finally, some theorists have considered personality to represent the essence of the human condition... Allport’s suggestion that "personality is what a man really is" illustrates this type of definition". (1)

All the above concepts of personality come from man’s thinking of self - thought and from the sources of information given by the six sense - organs of man. Both man’s thought and sense - organs are unbelievable agents as the author discussed before, so all conclusions about personality achieved must be reviewed in the light of Dependent Origination.

In real life, a man is the existence of mental and physical processes of becoming. All personality theorists’ efforts to define what he is only means stopping those processes: This is not what he really is, and not a good way to understand a man himself, wherefore any research for personality as entity is always on the way. This point will be proved when one follows the features of personality theories and their reviews.

III.1.2. FEATURES OF PERSONALITY

From what Larry A. Hjelle and Daniel J. Ziegler wrote about the features of personality in their book titled "Personality Theories" (2), the following common features may be mentioned:

1.Most definitions emphasize the importance of individuality or distinctiveness. Personality represents those distinct qualities that make one person stand out from others.

2.Personality is something abstract based on inferences derived from behavioral observation.

3. Personality represents an evolving process subject to a variety of internal and external influences, including genetic and biological propensities, social experiences, and changing environmental circumstances.

4. Personality definitions differ substantially from theorist to theorist. We should add that definitions of personality are not necessarily true or false, but are more or less useful to psychologists in pursuing research, in explaining regularities in human behavior...

Each definition of personality, or each personality theory, evolves a feature of personality. Sigmund Freud believed that human behaviour is determined by irrational, unconscious factors. Maslow believed most of our actions result from reason and free choice. Carl Gustav Jung claimed that people have two types of personality: introvert and extrovert. For Carl Rogers, who supposed, differently from Freud, that it is our present interpretation of past experiences rather than their factual existence that influences our current behaviour.

It may be said that psychologists, psychotherapists or personality theorists can discover many different features of human beings’ personality according to their points of views, or their own professional experiences. This fact proves that the true nature of human beings, or true personality, really is selfless: because of the existence of selflessness, personality may appear in various factual aspects as it has been viewed. Therefore, the more features of personality are discovered, the more knowledge of human beings can be gained. There is only one thing to be noticed that is a man himself appears as a river flowing on and on, and the features of personality mentioned here are but the river watering places it passed through. This can be seen plainly in the contemporary personality theories themselves.

III.1.3. REVIEW OF TYPICAL PERSONALITY THEORIES

There are many personality theories used in the study of educational psychology of today. All of them belong to either behaviorism or humanism. The following are some of them considered as the typical by the writer.

Sigmund Freud’s theory (1856 - 1939)

In the middle of nineteenth century, in Germany, Psychology was understood as "the analysis of consciousness in the normal adult human being". Freud had a different point of view. For him, the mind appears as an iceberg in which the smaller part showing above the surface of the water symbolizes the region of the activities of consciousness, and the much larger part of iceberg below the water symbolizes the area of the existing unconsciousness, where the urges, the passions, the repressed feelings and ideas strongly influencing on the individual thoughts and deeds exist.

In Freud’s opinion, the structure of personality includes three parts: id, ego and superego.

The id:

... The id cannot tolerate increases of energy that are experienced as uncomfortable states of tension. Consequently, when the tension level of the organism is raised, either as a result of external stimulation or of internally produced excitations, the id functions in such a manner as to discharge the tension immediately and return the organism to a comfortably constant and low energy level. This principle of tension reduction by which the id operates is called the pleasure principle..." (3)

The ego

" The ego comes into existence because the needs of the organism require appropriate transactions with the objective world of reality. The ego is said to obey the reality principle..

The reality principle suspends the pleasure temporarily although the pleasure principle is eventually served when the needed object is found and the tension is thereby reduced..., it decides what instincts will be satisfied and in what manner..." (4)

The super ego:

"It is the internal representative of the traditional values and ideals of society...

It represents the ideal rather than the real...

The main function of the super ego are:

(1) To inhibit the impulses of the id, particularly those of a sexual or aggressive nature, since these are the impulses whose expression is most highly condemned by society.

(2) To persuade the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and

(3) To strive for perfection." (5)

In concluding the introduction of the "id", "ego" and the "superego", Hall and Lindzey added: "... They work together as a team under the administrative leadership of the ego". (6)

In the author’s opinion, the id Freud mentioned is the root and very important part of human personality. It exists only under the form of sexual instincts or sexual desires. So a man, for Freud, is but the existence of sexual activities: sexual desires and the response to their requirements. Such a man is nothing but a forever slave of the "id" and the "superego" and the contradictions happening between them, or he is but a slave of the inborn of the past and of conventional values created by speculations which is called the good or morality of society. If people do not want to accept such a destiny, they will never accept Freud’s theory of personality. In reality, people are free to make every choice they want for their actual lives, they even can control or deal with sexual desires without pain or tension.

According to the truth of Dependent Origination, every thing cannot exist by itself, but it is conditioned, or it is the existence of temporary or immediate conditions. This shows that sexual instincts must be conditioned, so they cannot be regarded as the basis of what is called personality.

Moreover, with regard to the truth of life, when a thing exists,the opposite of it also exists. This supposes that mental states dealing with sexual instincts, which may be called non - sexual desires, comes into existence as well. This is what Sigmund Freud did not mention in his personality theory.

For Freud’s principle of pleasure or the tension reduction principle, it is but the manifestation of making love repeatedly again and again in a man’s life which will remove tensions or pains from him, and bring pleasures or happiness to him, but this result is doubted about, because in daily life people always are on the way to search for happiness: Searching for it says that it really does not exist; it still is out of the reach of men. So, how can people say the pleasure principle removes mental tensions ? Again, people’s experiences disclose that making love may cause tiresome of it or cause another tension stronger, how can people explain the meaning of reducing tensions of it ?

In life, a man’s tensions may come from other sources than sexual problems. In these cases, pleasure principle built up by Freud can bring tension reduction ?..

From the above questions, the writer comes to the following estimates:

* Sexual drive really is important to a man, but it is not all; it is not the factor determining what is called personality or the wholeness of him

* Making love or pleasure principle mentioned by Freud can bring pleasure to a man, but it can also bring unsatisfaction. The response to its requirement cannot resolve the problem of suffering and happiness of men.

* Freud’s personality theory may be useful to modern schools, but a good course of education cannot be based on it.

* The discovery of unconsciousness of man by Freud may be accepted as the very important part of an individual to be concerned, but what a man really is, is another problem the writer will discuss about in (III.2.)

Carl Gustav Jung’s theory: (1875 - 1961)

Carl Gustav Jung was a young psychiatrist in Zurich. In 1907, after his visit to Freud in Vienna, he was claimed by Freud to be Freud’s successor. Three years later the relationship between Jung and Freud was completely broken, because Jung rejected Freud’s pansexualism as Jung said, "The immediate reason was that Freud identified his method with his sex theory, which I see to be inadmissible" (7). Jung then proceeded to build his own theory of psycho-analisis and his own method of psychotherapy.

Calvin S.Hall and Gardner Lindzey wrote:

" ... For Freud, there is only the endless repetition of instinctual themes until death intervenes. For Jung, there is constant and often creative development, the search for wholeness and competition, and the yearning for rebirth". (8)

And:

" The total personality of psyche, as it is called by Jung, consists of a number of differentiated but interacting systems. The principal ones are the ego, the personal unconscious and its complexes, the collective unconscious and its archetypes, the persona, the anima and animus, and the shadow. In addition to these interdependent systems there are the attitudes of introversion and extraversion, and the functions of thinking, feeling, sensing and intuiting. Finally, there is the self which is the center of the whole personality". (9)

For Jung, ego means conscious perceptions, memories, thoughts and feelings; the unconscious consists of experiences which were once conscious but have been repressed, suppressed, forgotten or ignored, and experiences too weak to make up conscious impression upon the person; collective unconscious means the storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from one’s ancestral past...; the persona is a mask a person wears in response to the demands of social convention and tradition, and to his (or her) own inner archetypal needs; the anima and animus are terms showing a person as a bisexual animal (masculine and feminine characteristics are found in both sexes); the shadow archetype consists of the animal instincts that human beings inherited in their evolution from lower forms of their lives; and finally the self, according to Jung, means the total personality or the mid-point of personality, around which all of the other psychological elements of a person are constellated.

Jung’s effort, the author feels, is to show the limit of Freud’s theory of personality, but the personality theory built by him, as mentioned above, is also limited. It can only introduce to us the subjective and objective influences put on the human beings’ mind, but cannot say what human personality really is. So it cannot be considered either as an ideal personality theory or a pattern of education.

Alfred Adler’s theory (1870 - 1937)

Alfred Adler, born in Vienna in 1870 and died in Aberdeen, Scotland in 1937, was a psychiatrist, a member of the Vienna psychoanalytic Society and later its president. He followed Freudian Psychoanalysis then terminated his connection with it and formed his own group called Individual Psychology. He published over a hundred books, among them "The Practice and Theory of Indvidual Psychology" may be the best introduction to Adler’s theory of personality.

Calvin S.Hall and Gardner Lindzey appraised that :

" In sharp contrast to Frend’s major assumption that human behavior is motivated by inborn instincts, Jung’s principal axiom that human conduct is governed by inborn archetypes, Adler assumed that human beings are motivated primarily by social urges. Human are, according to Adler, inherently social beings. They relate themselves to other people, engage in cooperative social activities, place social welfare above selfish interest, and acquire a style of life that is predominantly social in orientation...

Freud emphasized sex, Jung emphasized primordial thought pattern, and Adler stressed social interest.

Adler’s second major contribution to personality theory is his concept of creative self...

A third feature of Adler’s psychology that sets it apart from classical psychoanalysis is its emphasis upon the uniqueness of personality...

Finally, Adler considered consciousness to be the center of personality, which makes him a pioneer in the development of an ego- oriented psychology"... (10)

The most interesting discovery of Adler’s theory of personality is the emphasis upon social interest, creative self and consciousness as the center of personality. This discovery can give a significant contribution to the sphere of personality theories. However, in the light of Dependent Origination as the truth of life, consciousness is but theresult of the operation of Ignorance (avijja) and Activities (Sankhaàra) elements, but not the center of personality. Somehow his theory needs to be adjusted as well as Freud’s and Jung’s.

Erich Fromn’s theory (1900 - ...)

He was born in Frankfurt, Germany in 1900. He got Ph.D. degree from the university of Heidenberg in 1922; then came to the United States of America in 1933 and taught at Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute as a lecturer. He also taught at a number of Universities in the U.S.A. and Mexico. His essential points of view, as Calvin S.Hall and Gardner Lindzey pointed out, are as follows:

-" Any form of society that humans have fashioned whether it be that of Feudalism, Capitalism, Fascism, Socialism or Communism represents an attempt to resolve the basic contradiction of humans. This contradiction consists of a person being both an animal and human being. As an animal, one has certain physiological needs that must be satisfied. As a human being, one possesses self - awareness, reason and imagination. Experiences that are uniquely human are feelings of tenderness, love and compassion, attitudes of interest, responsibility, indentity, integrity, vulnerability, transcendence and freedom, and values and norms". (11)

And:

-" One’s personality develops in accordance with the opportunities that a particular society offers one". (12)

So, Erich Fromn’s regard to men in a society is very practical and rather open. His theory just synthesizes the attitudes and ways of life of men that he believes they can exist in an individual. The first attitude and way of life to respond to physiological needs and desires requires food, water, physical comfort and sex and some other things relating to them, such as money, attention, affection and success (or good grades). The second attitude and way of life manifesting the qualities of a human being responds to mental requirements as the above quotation mentions. Those things belong to what is called Name - and - Form (Nàma - Ruøpa) following the operation of Ignorance (avijjaà) leading to sufferings and troubles only. Fromn cannot make any further steps in opening a way to true man and happiness in the here - and - now. As many other theorists, he really fell into troubles of individual and social problems.

Skinner’s theory (1904 - ...)

He really was a very well - known behaviorist who refused the existence of unconscious impulses, archetypes, traits as the presumed existence of internal factors determining a man’s behavior, as he wrote:

" I defined theory as an effort to explain behavior in term of something going on in another universe, such as the mind or the nervous system. Theories of that sort I do not believe are essential or helpful. Besides, they are dangerous, they cause all kinds of trouble. But I look forward to an over all theory of human behavior which will bring together a lot of facts and express them in a more general way. That kind of theory I would be very much interested in promoting, and I consider myself to be a theoritician (Evans, 1968, p.88)". (13)

He continues:

-"We do not need to try to discover what personalities, states of mind, feelings, traits of character, plans, purposes, intentions, or the other prerequisites of autonomous man really are in order to get on with a scientific analysis of behavior (Skinner, 1971, pp.12 - 13." (14)

-" In a behavioral analysis, a person is an organism... which has acquired a repertoire of behavior... [He] is not an originating agent; he is a locus, a point at which many genetic and environmental conditions come together in a joint effect (Skinner, 1974, pp. 167 - 168)". (15)

So, Skinner theory regards "personality" as nothing but a group of behavior patterns which are characteristics of an individual, and regards an individual behavior as a product of prior reinforcements: we do what we have been reinforced to do.

Such is a very pratical contribution of Skinner to the branch of educational psychology in understanding human beings’ behaviours and such is the limit of his theory in realizing what a man really is, because a man’s behaviours are far different from a man himself.

As a behaviorist, B.F. Skinner cannot do any otherbetter thing to help men recognize themselves, the real causes of troubles and the way to enter into mental peace and happiness in the here - and - now. All behaviorist theories are based on the philosophical point of view of Scientific Realism governed by self - thought and the limit of the six sense - organs of men, as what the writer can take out of the U.S. Educational Psychology. In this branch of study, on the other hand, all humanist theories of personality are based on the philosophical point of view of Existentialism and Phenomenology which sounds much better, but they cannot either say the truth of man, life and the way to happiness. Let’s continue examining the latter.

Maslow’s theory (1908 - ...)

Abraham Harold Maslow was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1908. His parents were uneducated Jewish who had emigrated from Russia with their seven children, Maslow is the eldest. Maslow wrote:

"With my childhood, it’s a wonder I am not psychotic.

I was a little Jewish boy in the non - jewish neighborhood.

It was a little like being the first Negro enrolled in the all-white school. I was isolated and unhappy. I grew up in libraries and among books, without friends" (Hall, 1968, p.37).

There was some bitterness and animosity in the relationship between Maslow and his mother, while his father was considered a man who "love whisky, women and fighting" (wilson, 1972, p.131)"

He studied psychology at Wisconsin University, obtained B.A. degree in 1930, his M.A. in 1931 and his Ph.D. in 1934. Maslow also worte:

" Life didn’t really start for me until I got married and went to Wisconsin" (Hall, 1968, p.37)

In the book titled "Personality Theories", Larry A. Hjelle and Daniel J. Ziegler wrote about Maslow that:

" After receiving his Ph.D., Maslow returned to New York to work with the famous learning theorist E.L. Thorndike at Columbia University. He then moved to New York during this period... It was here that he personally encountered the cream of European intellectuals who were forced to flee from Hitler. Erich Fromn, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Ruth Benedict, Max Wertheimer, ... were a few of those whom Maslow sought out to enhance his understanding of Human behavior. The informal conversations and challenging experiences afforded by such distinguished scholars helped shape the intellectual foundations for Maslow’s later humanistic views." (16)

In the world of educational psychology, if Skinner was known as one of the best - known behaviorist theorists of personality, Maslow was considered as one of the best known humanist theorists of personality whose point of view is based on the philosophical course of Existentialismand Phenomenology, as mentioned above, generally expressed as follows:

" ...Existentialists stress the idea that ultimately each of us is responsible for who we are and what we become. As Sartre put it, "Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself". Such is the first principle of Existentialism." (17)

And:

" The most important concept that humanistic psychologists have extracted from Existentialism is that of becoming. A person is never static; he is always in the process of becoming a new person". (18)

" Humanistic psychologists recognize the quest for a meaningful and fulfilling life is not an easy one. This is especially true in an age of profound cultural change and conflict, where traditional beliefs and values no longer provide adequate guidelines for the good life or for finding meaning in human existence. Finally, existentialists assert that the only "reality" anyone ever knows is subjective or personal, not objective. This outlook may be designated in a shorthand way as the phenomeno - logical or "here - and - now" perspective". (19)

According to Hjelle’s and Ziegler’s regard to Maslow’s point of view written in their book mentioned above (p.461), Maslow’s belief is that a human being is fundamentally free and responsible in choosing a way of life to lead. His freedom helps him decide how and what to be. Maslow’sview is therefore really optimistic, he did conclude that a self - actualizing person, who appears as a good pattern for education, manifests the following characteristics:

(1) More efficient perception of reality. ...
(2) Acceptance of self, others and nature. ...
(3) Spontaneity, simplicity and naturalness. ...
(4) Problem-centered. ...
(5) Detachment: need for privacy. ...
(6) Autonomy : independence of culture and environment.
(7) Continued freshness of appreciation. ...
(8) Peak or mystic experiences. ...
(9) Social interest.
(10) Profound interpersonal relations. ...
(11) Democratic character structure. ...
(12) Discrimination between means and ends....
(13) Philosophical sense humor. ...
(14) Creativeness.
(15) Resistance to enculturation. ... (20)

Human nature or personality, according to Maslow’s point of view, seems to be very human, existential and positive, but in fact it is just a concept of what is compounded by a couple of characteristics as conditions of mental development. It is not a man himself. Maslow cannot show the subject creating the above characteristics and the root cause of man’s troubles and sufferings, how can an individual train himself for those characteristics? How can he deal with troubles ? There seems to exist something like fog in his theory ? In his thought ?

Carl Ransom Rogers’ theory (1902 - 1987)

Carl Ransom Rogers was born in Oak Park (a Chicago suburb), Illinois, in 1902. He was the fourth of six children of a family of financial success and happiness. In high school, he had no close friends outside his family and spent much of his time on reading books - any book he could find, even dictionary or encyclopedia. He received straight "A" grades in almost all his courses he attended. He obtained his B.A. degree in History in 1924, at Wisconsin University, then got married and found such happy life with his wife and lover, Helen Elliot Rogers wrote, "I made friends, found new ideas, and fell thoroughly in love with the whole experience" (1967, p.353)

Rogers followed educational psychology courses and got his M.A. degree in 1928, then Ph.D. in Clinical psychology in 1931. He accepted a position as staff psychologist at Child Study Department in Rochester, New York, then was offered a Faculty appointment with the rank of full professor in the Psychology Department at Ohio State University in 1939. He published his book entitled "The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child" also in 1939, his "Counseling and Psychotherapy" in 1942; took a position as Professor of Psychology and Director of the University Counseling Center at the University of Chicago. Here, from 1945 to 1957, he completed his major work, "Client - Centered - Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory". (1951).

In 1957, Rogers returned to the University of Wisconsin and worked there in the Department of Psychology and Psychiatry. In 1964, he worked in Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (WBSI) in Lajolla, California.

In 1969, he left WBSI for working in the Center of Studies of Person, in Lajolla, Calif. until he died in 1987 by a heart attack.

During his lifetime Rogers received many awards:

* In 1946, he was selected as the President of the American Psychological Association (APA) and was awarded the APA’s First Distinguished Professional Contribution Award. In this occasion he gave an address, in which he said: "I expressed an idea whose time had come, as though a pebbe was dropped in water and spread ripples. The idea was that the individual has vast resources within himself for altering his life and these resources can be mobilized given the proper climate" (1937, p.4.)

Rogers published a couple of books.

* Psychotherapy and Personality Change (1954).
* On Becoming a Person (1961).
* Person to Person: The Problem of Being Human (1967).
* Freedom to Learn: A View of what Education Might Become (1969).
* Carl Rogers on Encounter Groups (1970).
* Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977).
* A Way of Being (1980).
* Freedom to Learn For the 80s (1983).

As Hjelle and Ziegler (Ibid. pp. 488 - 489) appraised, Carl Ransom Rogers may be the best known Psychologist and Psychotherapist of the time from 1950 to 1983. Let’s follow his thoughts on human nature or personality:

* "Each person construes reality in accordance with his private world of experience, and this experiential world can be completely known only to the person". (21)

*"This expression of Rogers reflects the philosophical point of view of Phenomenology which holds, "what is real to an individual is that which exists within that person’s internal frame of reference, or subjective world, including everything in his awareness at any point of time. It follows that subjective perceptions and experiences not only constitute the person’s private reality but also form the basis for his actions"". (22)

And:

" For the most part, Rogers rejected Freud’s position that historical aspects or derivatives of behavior are the primary factors underlying personality. Behavior is not determined by something that occurred in the past. Instead, Rogers emphasizes the need to understand the person’s relationship to the environment as he now exists and perceives it.

It is our present interpretation of past experiences rather than their factual existence that influences our current behaviour". (23)

The above quotations proves that for Rogers, a human being can perceive reality through the limit of what he is, and only that reality is real to him. It is his subjective perceptions and experiences constructing that reality and the basis of his actions. Such is the world (or experiential world) and such is personality!

His point of view, on the one hand, manifests the regard to things of Phenomenology and Humanism which sounds very human and very impressive, on the other hand, indirectly recognizes the limit of that regard which is governed by the wrongness of man’s subjective perceptions and experiences. Rogers accepts those perceptions and experiences as truth of life, while in reality, under the light of Dependent Origination, they are false and only lead human beings to sufferings. This is a big gap of his theory of personality. However, in the meaning of helping individuals reduce troubles caused by their negative regards or attitudes of life, it remains rather interesting when Rogers suggested a pattern of "a fully functioning person" in 1980 which requires a person to follow the following factors: (24)

(1) Openness to experience: "To be open to experience is the polar opposite of defensiveness. People who are completely open to experience are able to listen to themselves, ..., are acutely aware of their own deepest thoughts and feelings..."

(2)Existential living: "This is the tendency to live fully and richly in each moment of existence as it comes. By doing so, each experience in the person’s life is perceived as fresh and unique..."

(3)Organismic trusting: "Organismic trusting thus signifies the person’s ability to consult and abide by his (or her) inner feelings as the major basis for making choices".

(4)Existential freedom: "Existential freedom thus refers to the inner feeling that "I am solely responsible for my own actions and their consequences"".

(5) Creativity: "For Rogers, the person who is involved in "the good life" would be the type from whom creative products (ideas, projects, actions) and creative living would emerge. Creative people also tend to live constructively and adaptively in their culture while at the same time satisfying their own deepest needs. They would be able, creatively to flexibly adapt to changing environmental conditions."

For the first attitude of life, "openness to experience", to the author, means it always is open but not stops at or grasps anything. This attitude can expect an experience of emptiness of things which is the highest experience of thought and feeling. It needs only the right way to go, as the way Lord Buddha taught, that Rogers couldn’t imagine.

For the second attitude of life, "Existential living", it can help a person get out of troubles caused by histhought of past and future, and concentrate his thought on the very present moment which is always new, fresh and unique. But his experience of this truth exists only when he can control completely his wrong thoughts and desires. Rogers couldn’t show the way to do as Lord Buddha did introduce the Eightfold Noble Path or the Four Noble Truths to human beings.

For the third one, "Organismic trusting", it means a person should make a choice for his course of actions on the basic of what he feels right, but not on any external source of influence or any judgment of others. This is a good sense. But there are various thoughts, feelings and desires arising in him, at first he should make a choice among them before he could make a choice for the course of action. What is the standard for the rightness to follow? What is the subject of making a choice ? - Rogers did not and could not mention these things, so his theory needs to be completed as well as possible.

For the fourth one, it means self - responsibility. This is necessary for any good way of life.

For the last factor, it sounds truly creative, wise and human. It works mainly for the deepest needs of a person. But which are the deepest needs leading to true happiness for a person in the here - and - now ? Rogers’ theory lacks this point which will be clarified by Lord Buddha’s teaching the writer will introduce in the Part Four of this work.

In short, Rogers’ ideas on human nature, on his way of "client - centered therapy" and on a "fully - functioningperson" are very interesting. They could help the people in education open a course of education for good educational spirit for the development of individuals. But the soul of that course of education must be looked for in the doctrine of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppàda) and the Five Aggregates (Pàncakkhandha).

REFERENCES:

(1): Calvin S.Hall and Gardner Lindzey, "Theories of Personality" Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, 110002, 1991, pp. 8-9.
(2): Adapted from "Personality Theories", by Larry A.Jelle and Daniel J.Ziegler, Mc Graw - Hill, Inc., New York, 1992, p.5.
(3): Calvin S.Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Ibid., p.36.
(4): Ibid., pp. 37-38.
(5): Ibid., p.38.
(6): Ibid., p.39.
(7): Ibid., p.114.
(8): Ibid., p.116.
(9): Ibid., p. 118.
(10): Ibid., pp. 159-160.
(11): Ibid., p. 170.
(12): Ibid., p. 172.
(13): Ibid., p. 297.
(14): Ibid., p. 298.
(15): Ibid., p. 301.
(16): Ibid., p. 442.
(17): Ibid., p. 444.
(18): Ibid., p. 444.
(19): Ibid., p. 445.
(20): Ibid., pp. 477 - 478.
(21): Ibid., p. 496.
(22): Ibid., p. 496.
(23): Ibid., p. 497.
(24): Ibid., pp. 508 - 509

 

 

III.2 Chapter 2

Man is Pancakkhandha

-ooOoo-

Name-and-Form element (Nàma-Rùpa) as discussed in "the operation of the twelve elements of Dependent Origination" are the five aggregates of man (Pancakkhandhà), therefore the operation of the twelve elements really is the operation of Pancakkhandhà, and realizing that operation means realizing what a man really is.

At the Deer Park (Migadàya), Isipatana at Bàrànasì, right after the first day of teaching the Four Noble Truths (Cattàri Ariyasaccàni), from the second day to the fifth, Lord Buddha explained the doctrine of Pancakkhandhà to Mahàthera Kondanna and his four Dhamma friends. It runs that:

"At Benares, in the Deer Park was the occasion (for this discourse)At that time the Exalted One thus addressed the band of five brethren:"Body, brethren, is not the self..., feeling is not the self... likewise perception, the activities and consciousness are not the self...

Moreover, by this teaching thus uttered the hearts of those five brethren were freed from the àsavas without grasping". (1)

("Bàrànasiyam nidànam Migadàye // Tatra kho, Bhagavà, pancavaggiye bhikkhuù àmantesi // la // etad avoca // Ruùpam bhikkhave, anattà // ... Vedanà anattà / ... Sannà anattà // ... Sankhàrà anattà // ... Vinnànam anattà // ... Idam avoca Bhagavà // ..imasmimca pana veyyàkaranasmim bhannamàne pancavaggiyànam bhikkhunam anupàdàya àsavehi cittàni vimuccimsu ti//"). (2)

Pancakkhandhà is the second discourse which helped the first five disciples of Lord Buddha destroy completely their defilements to attain the Arahanthood to see the truth of life and true happiness. Let’s now examine Lord Buddha’s teachings on it.

III.2.1:THE MEANING OF PANCAKKHANDHA

Lord Buddha defined:

" I will teach you, brethren, the five factors and the five factors that have to do with grasping. Do Ye listen to it. And what, brethren, are the five factors? All body, brethren, be it past, future or present, inward or outward, gross or subtle, low or lofty, far or near, that is called "the body - factor". Every feeling, perception, all the activities, every consciousness, be it past, future or present, inward or out ward, etc. That is called the "consciousness - factor".

These five, brethren, are called the five factors. And what, brethren, are the five factors that have to do with grasping? Every body, brethren, be it past, future or present..., be it far or near, is a co - aàsava, and has to do with grasping. That is called the five factors that have to do with grasping. Every perception...; All the activities...; whatever consciousness..." (3)

("Panca, bhikkhave, khandhe desissàmi pancupàdànakkhandhe ca // tam sunàth// Katame ca, bhikkhave, pancakkhandhà // Yam kinci, bhikkhave, ruùpam atìtànàgatapaccuppannam ... // Yàkàci vedanà... // Ye Keci sankhàrà...

Yam kinci vinnànam atitànàpaccuppannam... // Ime vuccanti bhikkhave, pancakkhandhà // Katame ca, bhikkhave, pancupàdànakkhandhà // Yam kinci, bhikkhave, rupam ... upàdànìyam ayam vuccati rupupàdànakkhandho // Yà kàci vedanà // pe //

Ime vuccanti, bhikkhave, pancupàdànakkha-ndhàti //") (4)

The above quotation says that:

Aggregate of body (or form) is understood as a person’s physical body, bodies of others and the material world. Aggregate of feeling includes feeling of suffering, of happiness and of indifference. It is known as feelings arising from eye - contact, ear - contact, nose - contact, tongue - contact, body - contact and mind - contact.

Aggregate of perception includes perception of body, perception of sound, perception of odour, perception of taste, perception of touch (or tangibles), and perception of mental objects (or phenomena).

Aggregate of activities (or volition) is all mental, oral and bodily activities. it also is understood as volitionalacts occasioned by body, by sound, by odour, by taste, by touching or by ideas. Aggregate of consciousness includes eye - consciousness, ear - consciousness, nose - consciousness, tongue - consciousness, body - consciousness and mind - consciousness.

Such is a person ! He is conditioned by this physical and mental world. He relates closely to others, to society, and to nature, but can never exist by himself. Therefore, he must be selfless, impermanent. Because of selflessness and impermanence, a person who always grasp selfness and permanence feels suffering in life, as Lord Buddha declared:

"Body, brethren, is impermanent. What is impermanent that is suffering. What is suffering, that is void of self. What is void of self, that is not mine, I am not it, it is not myself. That is how it is to be regarded by perfect insight of what it really is.

Feeling is impermanent. etc.

Perception is impermanent. ...

Activities are impermanent. ...

Conscious is impermanent. ..." (5)

(" Ruùpam, bhikkhave, aniccam // yad aniccam tam dukkham // yam dukkham tad anattà // yad anattà tam netam mama neso ham- asmi na meso attà ti // Evam etam yathàbhuøtam sammappannàya datthabbam // Vedanà aniccà ... // Sannà aniccà .... // Sankhàrà aniccà ... // Vinnànam aniccam...

Evam etam yathàbhuøtam sammappannàya datthabbam //") (6)

And:

" Body, brethren, is void of the self. That which is the cause, that which is the condition of the arising of body, that also is void of self. How, brethren, can body, which is compounded of the selfless, come to be the self?

Feeling... Perception... The Activities... Consciousness is void of the self. That which is the cause, that which is... that also is void of the self. How can that consciousness, which is compounded of the selfless, come to be the self?" (7)

("Ruùpam, bhikkhave, ànattà // yo pi hetu yo pi paccayo ruùpassa uppàdàya so pi anattà //anattasambhutam, bhikkhave, ruùpam kuto attà bhavissati //

Vedanà anattà // ... Sannà anattà // ...

Sankhàrà anattà //... Vinnànam anattà // yo pi hetu yo pi paccayo vinnànassa uppàdàya so pi anattà // anattasambhuøtam, bhikkhave, vinnànam kuto attà bhavissati // //") (8)

The truth of a man is selfless: it is not his self, it is not his, and he is not it, while the contemporary personality theorists and educators tend to search for a self and consider that: it is his self, it is his and he is it, how can they come to solutions for individuals’ problems?(!) Here is the very crucial point from which the personality theorists and educators know what and how to educate individuals for a good society and environment they are living in, and for their happiness. Evidently, it is not easy to convince people to accept this truth of life, but the point is people should not keep themselves away from it. This demands education to find the way to do to help people see it as the following teaching shows:

" Just as if, brethren, this river Ganges should carry down a huge lump of foam, and a keen - sighted man should see it, observe it and look close into its nature. So seeing it, observing it and looking close into its nature, he would find it empty, he would find it unsubstantial, he would find it without essence. What essence, brethren, could there be in a lump of foam? Suppose, brethren, in autumn time, when the sky-god rains down big drops, a bubble rises on the water and straight way bursts, and a keen - sighted man should see it, observe it. look close into its nature. So seeing it, observing it, and looking close into its nature, he would find it empty, he would find it unsubstantial, he would find it without essence. What essence, brethren, could there be in a bubble on the water?

Even so, brethren, whatsoever feeling, be it past, future or present, be it far or near, a brother sees... he finds it without essence. What essence, brethren, could there be in feeling? ..." (9)

("Seyyathàpi, bhikkhave, ayam Gangà nadìmahantam phenapindam àvaheyya // tamenam Cakkhumà puriso passeyya nijjhàyeyya yoniso upaparikkheyya // Tassa tam passato nijjhàyato yoniso upaparikkhato rittakanneva khàyeyya tucchakanneva khàyeyya asàrakanneva khàyeyya // Kinhi siyà, bhikkhave, phenapinde sàro // Seyyathàpi, bhikkhave, saradasamaye thullaphusitake deve vassante udake bubbulam uppajjati ceva nirujjhati ca // tam evam cakkhumà puriso passeyya nijjhàyeyya yoniso upaparikkheyya // tassa tam passato nijjhàyato yoniso upaparikkhato rittakan-neva khàyeyya // tucchakanneva khàyeyya asàrakanneva khàyeyya // kinhi siyà, bhikkhave, udakabubbule sàro // Evam eva kho, bhikkhave, yà kàci vedanà atìtànàgatapaccuppannà // pe // ... kinhi siyà, bhikkhave, vedanàya sàro //") (10)

It is similar for a mirage seen in the dry season at high noontide compared with consciousness and other aggregates.

If a man sees that truth, he comes to feel disgust at aggregates; feeling disgust he is repelled; by repulsion he is set free and comes to the Insight that: he is free.

Now, following that regard to things, let us take a look deep into men’s physical bodies, observe and analyse them, what can we realize?

That physical body comes from a foetus made up by the spermatozoon and semen. Thesespermatozoon and semen were created by the essence of food coming from many conditions in nature which includes the existence of the Sun about 150 million kilometers away from here.

That baby (child) has been brought up also by food, etc. It exists out of the intention of a person, and changes all the time...

How can that body regarded as his own self? Similarly, analysing the aggregate of feeling will help a person see :

- Feeling aggregate is nothing but a mass of feelings coming from touching which is but the contact of the inward part and the outward part of the body aggregate. If body aggregate is seen as not the "I", the "mine" or the "my self" and as emptiness, so is feeling aggregate.

For perception aggregate, it is the perceptions of body, of sound, of smell, of taste, of touch and of phenomena. These things belonging to body aggregate are empty, as mentioned above, so those perceptions are also empty: they must not be considered as the "I", the "mine" or the "my self"

For Activities aggregate, they are known as the thought of body, of sound, of smell, of taste, of touch, and of mental objects, but body, sound, ..., are empty and considered as not the "I", the "mine" the "my self" so Activities aggregate must be regarded similarly.

For consciousness aggregate, it is the cognition arising from eye - contact, ear - contact, nose - contact, tongue - contact, body contact and mind - contact. Eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind are empty and not the "I", the "mine" or the "my self"; so is consciousness.

What is called a man is a compound of the five aggregates which are empty, he must be selfless and not the "I", the "mine" or the "my self". This sounds rather strange but true.

Such a regard to the five aggregates is that of wisdom (pannà or vijja) which can help a person to come out of all troubles. It suggests a person to train himself for a regard of wisdom to things, but not for the search for a self or personality.

Here, an individual may ask: if "no-self" is the true self of a human being, then who acts? Who receives the result of his actions? - These questions implying the meaning of a "self" must belong to self - thought which is ignorance (avijja) and is of conception but not of reality. In fact, human beings are there, their actions are there, and the results of their actions they receive are there. No question on "who" or "why" exists in reality: it is what to live with, but not to talk about or to think of. There are only two things to be concerned in the fateful existence of a human being: his obsessing suffering and his requirement to find out the way to the cessation of that suffering. His main problem is how to have a right view on these two things as Lord buddha taught His disciple, Kaccànagotta, that:

" From the very lips of the Exalted one, friend Channa, from his very lips as he taught brotherKaccànagotta, I heard this: "On two things, Kaccàna, does this world generally base its view - on existence and on non - existence. Now he who with right insight sees the arising of the world as it really is, does not believe in the non - existence of the world. But, Kaccàna, he who with right insight sees the ceasing of the world as it really is, does not believe in the existence of the world.

Grasping after systems, imprisoned by dogmas in this world, Kaccàna, for the most part. And he who does not go after, does not grasp at, does not take his stand on this system - grasping, this dogma, this mental bias, - such an one does not say it is my soul. He who thinks, that which arises is but ill: that which ceases, it is ill such an one has no doubts; no perplexity. In this matter, knowledge not borrowed from others comes to him. Thus far, Kaccàna, goes right view."

"All exists", Kaccàna, - that is one extreme.

"Nought exists" Kaccàna, - that is the other extreme. Not approaching either extreme, Kaccàna, the Tathàgata teaches you a doctrine by the middle way: "Conditioned by ignorance come the activities, conditioned by activities comes consciousness, and so forth. Thus is the arising of this whole mass of ill. By the utter fading away and ceasing of ignorance comes the ceasing of the activities, and so forth. Thus is the ceasing of this entire mass of ill". (11)

("Sammukhà me tam, àvuso Channa, Bhagavato sutam sammukhà ca patiggahitam Kaccànagottam bhikkhum ovadantassa // Dvayanissito khvàyam Kaccàna loko, yebhuyyena atthi tanceva natthi tanca // Lokasamudayam, kho Kaccàna, yathàbhuùtam sammappannàya passato yà loke natthità sà na hoti // loka nirodham kho, Kaccàna, yathàbhuùtam sammappannàya passato yà loke atthità sà na hoti// Upàyupàdànàbhinivesavinilbandho khàyam, Kaccàna, loko yebhuyyena // tancàyam upàyupàdànam cetaso adhitthànàbhinivesànusayàna upeti na upàdiyati // nàdhitthàti Attà me ti // Dukkham eva uppajjamànam uppajjati dukkham niruddhamànam nirujjhatìti na kankhati na vicikicchati aparapaccayà nànam evassa ettha hoti // Ettàvatà kho, Kaccàna, sammàditthi hoti //

Sabbam attìti kho, Kaccàna, ayam eko anto // Sabbam natthìti ayam dutiyo anto // Ete te Kaccàna ubho ante anupagamma majjhena Tathàgato dhammam deseti // Avijjàpaccayà sankhàrà... pe... Evam etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hoti //") (12)

So the above mentioned root problem of human beings was taught and emphasized by Lord Buddha. It was emphasized several times by Him as the central point of His teaching as recorded here and there in the Pancanikàya. He said:

" Both formely and now also, it is just sorrow and the ceasing of sorrow that I proclaim" (13)

("Sàdhu sàdhu, Anuràdha, pubbe càham, Anuràdha, etarahi ca dukkhanceva pannàpemi dukkhassa ca nirodhanti //"). (14)

Lord Buddha, in addition to the above teaching, also emphasized what should be understood by an individual, and what is the understanding of it so clearly that:

" Brethren, I will show you things that are to be understood, likewise understanding. Do ye listen to it.

And what, brethren, are the things to be understood, Body, brethren, is a thing to be understood: feeling is a thing to be understood: perception, the activities and consciousness also. These, brethren, are the things that are to be understood.

And what, brethren, is understanding? The destruction of lust, the destruction of hatred, the destruction of illusion: that; brethren, is called "understanding". (15)

(" Parinànàeyye ca, bhikkhave, dhamme desisàmi Parinnanca // tam sunàtha//

Katame ca, bhikkhave, parinneyyà dhammà // Rupam, bhikkhave, parinneyyo dhammo // Vedanà parinneyyo dhammo // sannà... // sankhàrà ... // vinnànam... // Ime vuccanti, bhikkhave, parinneyyà dhammà // Katamà ca, bhikkhave, parinnà // Yo, bhikkhave, ràgakkhayo dosakkhayo mohakkhayo // ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, parinnàti //") (16)

In short, Lord Buddha’s teachings recorded in Pancanikàya are basically concentrated on introducing the five aggregates and the way of dealing with men’s desires for them which means introducing the arising of the five aggregates and the ceasing of them. This is a very practical and existential way of education that suggests to men the purpose of education - which is happiness or the cessation of suffering -, and the content of education - which is the understanding of the five aggregates and the way of extinguishing sufferings arising from them - That way also suggests that the course of modern education, in the name of human beings and their happiness in this very life, should be based on that purpose and content of education. The search for truth of man and universe now should turn to be the realization of the five aggregates, the operation of which will be mentioned next.

III.2.2: THE OPERATION OF PANCAKKHANDHA

As mentioned in (III.2.1.) the operation of the five aggregates is that of Name-and-Form (nàma - rupa) of Dependent Origination and so is the operation of Dependent Origination itself. And, the five aggregates co - exist; they cannot separate from each other. This is an important thing to be noticed before mentioning the operation of each aggregate.

The operation of Consciousness (Vinnana)

Consciousness is the cause of Name-and-Form element in Dependent Origination, and so it is understood as the cause of the five aggregates on the one hand, and on the other hand it is conditioned by the other eleven elements of Dependent Origination as it is implied in the following teaching:

" Were a man, brethren, to declare thus: "Apart from body, apart from feeling, apart from perception, apart from the activities, I will show forth the coming or the going or the decease or the rebirth of consciousness" - to do that were impossible.

If lust for body, brethren, is abandoned by a brother, by that abandonment of lust its foothold is cut off. Thereby there is no platform for consciousness. Likewise as regards feeling, perception, the activities.

So also, brethren, if lust for the consciousness element be abandoned by a brother, by that abandonment of lust, its foothold is cut off. Thereby there is no platform for consciousness. Without that platform, consciousness has no growth, it generates no action and is freed: by freedom it is steady: by its steadiness it is happy: owing to happiness it is not troubled. Being untroubled, of itself it becomes utterly weel, so that it knows: "destroyed is rebirth, lived is the righteous; done is the task, for life in these conditions there is no hereafter".) (17)

("Yo bhikkhave evam vadeyya // Aham annatraruùpà annatra vedanàya annatra sannàya annatra sankhàrehi vinnànassa àgatim và gatim và cutim và upapattim và vuddhim và virulhim và vepullam và pannàpessàmìti netam thànam vijjati //

Rùpadhàtuyà ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno ràgo pahìno hoti // ràgassa pahànà vocchijjatàram - manam patitthà vinnànassa na hoti // Vedanàya dhàtuyà ce, bhikkhave // Sannàdhàtuyà ce bhikkhave // Sankhàra... Vinnàna...

Tad apatitthitam vinnànam aviruàlham anabhisankhàrànca vimuttam // vimuttattà thitam thitattà santusitam santusitattà na paritassati // aparitassam paccattanneva parinibbàyati // Khìnà jàti vusitam brahmacariyam katam karanìyam nàparam itthattàyàti pajànàtìti //") (18)

Lust for body, feeling, perception, the activities and consciousness is a mental activity which belongs to the Activities element (sankhàra) of Dependent Origination or Activities aggregates of the Five aggregates. Owing to this lust, consciousness arises, develops and matures. This lust for the Five aggregates exists because of the existence of the satisfaction of the Five aggregates. This satisfaction exists owing to the fact that one attaches to the selfness of things which is called Ignorance (avijjà).If the attachment to things (or Ignorance) ceases to exist, the satisfaction of things cannot exist and one’s lust for the satisfaction of things also ceases to exist.If one’s lust for things ceases to exist, the cause of sufferings - which aregrasping, becoming, birth, old-age - cannot appear; then one comes to extinguish all troubles and attain happiness of one’s free mind. This also means the cessation of consciousness.

Another aspect of the operation of Consciousness may be regarded as the cause, the origin and the condition of Name-and-Form as mentioned in (II.1.2.) - "the meaning and operation of the twelve causes - but it is not an entity: it includes six groups: eye - consciousness exists when there exists the contact between eyes and forms, ear - consciousness exists when there exists the contact between ears and sounds, ..., and mind -consciousness exists when there exists the contact between mind and mental objects. If the contact does not exist, consciousness cannot be present and cannot operate. So, consciousness is but the existence of a group of conditions which must not be regarded as the "I", the "mine" or the "myself"

The operation of Activities aggregate (sankhara)

Activities aggregate is the very Activities element of Dependent Origination. It is a compound of mental activities, oral activities and bodily activities. It is also regarded as one’s will to live and defined by Lord Buddha as follows:

"And what, brethren, are the Activities? These six seats of will: the will that is in body, sound, odour, taste, touch, and in mental images. These, brethren, are called the Activities. From the arising of contact, comes the arising of the activities. From the ceasing of contact is the ceasing ofactivities." (19)

("Katame ca, bhikkhave, sankhàrà // chayime, bhikkhave, cetanàkàyà // ruùpasancetanà // pe / dhammasancetanà // ime vuccanti, bhikkhave, sankhàrà // Phassasamudayà sankhàrasamudayo // phassasamudayà sankharànirodho // ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo sankhàranirodhagàminì patipadà // seyyathìdam sammàditthi // pe // sammàsamàdhi //") (20)

The above quotation and what has been expressed in the Activities element of Dependent Origination in part (II.1.2.) shows that:

* All thoughts of and desires for body, sound, odour, smell, taste, and mental images of a person make up Activities aggregate (sankhàra khandha).

* If contact is not present, his feeling is absent; and his desire for things does not exist, his thought of thing does not come into existence either. This means Activities aggregate is an empty entity.

* All psychological activities of a person - such as wishes, vows, wholesome and unwholesome thoughts, hate, love, jealousy, self - pride, mental reactions to life... - which have created his life in the present and in the next existence are of Activities aggregate. These things make sense for life, without them life becomes meaningless. However, the operation of them is but the operation of an illusion of a self (or ignorance) which says the true meaning of all values of ahuman life is very shadowy.

In a more positive expression of that operation, Lord Buddha taught His disciples that:

" And what, monks, is the undertaking of dhamma that is suffering in the present and results in suffering in the future? In this case, monks, someone, even with suffering, even with grief, becomes one to make onslaught on creatures he experiences suffering and grief. Even with suffering, even with grief; he becomes one who takes what was not given..., he becomes one to behave wrongly in regard to sense pleasures..., he becomes a liar..., a slanderer..., a harsh speaker..., a frivolous talker..., he becomes covetous..., malevolent in thought... of wrong view, and because of his wrong view he experiences suffering and grief. He, at the breaking up of the body after dying uprises in a sorrowful state, a bad bourn, the abyss, Niraya Hell". (21)

("Katamanca, bhikkhave, dhammasamàdànam paccuppannadukkhanc’eva àyatinca dukkhavipàkam: Idha, bhikkhave, ekacco sahàpi dukkhena sahàpi domanassena pànàtipàtì hoti pànàtipàtàpacayà ca dukkham domanassam patisamvedeti, sahàpi dukkhena sahàpi domanassena adinnàdàyì hoti adinnàdànapaccayà ca dukkham domanassam patisamvedeti, sahàpi dukkhena sahàpi domanassena kàmesu micchàcàrìhoti kàmesu micchàcàrapaccayà cadukkham domanassam patisamvedeti, sahàpi dukkhena sahàpi domanassena musàvàdì hoti musàvàdapaccayà ca dukkham domanassam patisamvedeti, sahàpi dukkhena sahàpi domanassena pisunàvàco hoti pisunàvàcàpaccayà ca dukkham domanassam patisamvedeti,... pharusàvàco..., ... samphappalàpì..., ... abhijjhàlu..., ... byàpannacitto..., .. micchàditthi hoti micchàditthipaccayà ca dukkham domanassam patisamvedeti. So kàyassa bhedà param maranà apàyam duggatim vinipàtam nirayam upapajjati. Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, dhammasamàdànam paccuppan-nadukkhan- c’eva àyatinca dukkhavipàkam"). (22)

The above are ten common actions of an evil worldly man: three of them relate to body; four relate to speech; and three relate to mind.

In the next paragraphs of the discourse (suttam), Lord Buddha declared: with regard to those ten volitional actions, there are people who did them with pleasure and felt satisfied after having done in the present would receive sufferings as results in the future; there are people, who abstained from doing them with suffering and grief, and experienced suffering and grief in the present, would arise in a good, a heaven existence after dying; there are people who abstained from doing them with pleasure and happiness and experienced pleasure and happiness in the present, would arise in a good bourn, a heaven existence after dying.

Those ten volitional actions, either good or evil, are of the operation of Activities aggregate in the sphere of psychological conditions of the sensual world which is dominated by the five mental factors called five hindrances: sensual desire, ill - will, sloth and torpor, flurry and worry, and doubt, as Lord Buddha taught:

" ... The hindrance of sensual desire, of ill - will, of sloth and torpor, of flurry and worry, and the hindrance of doubt. "Tis a heap of bad things !" Monks, and in saying this of these five hindrances, one would speak rightly; for verily, monks, the whole is a heap of bad things, that is to say: these five hindrances". (23)

("Kàmacchandaniâvaranam, vyàpadaniâvaranam, thìnamiddhaniâvaranam, uddhaccakukkuccaniâvaranam vicikicchànìvaranam.

Akusalaràsì ti, bhikkhave, vadamàno ime panca niìvarane sammà vadamàno vadeyya. Kevalo h’ayam, bhikkhave, akusalaràsi yad idam ime panca nìvaranà ti.") (24)

Those hindrances overspread the heart of a person, and weaken his insight. To control and deal with them, the person should open a new course of operation for his Activities aggregate by cultivating two conditions of meditation: Calm (or samatha) and Insight (or vipassanà) as Lord Buddha showed:

" Monks, for the full comprehension of lust, anger, delusion, hate, hypocrisy and spite, envy and grudging, deceit and treachery, obstinacy andimpetuosity, pride and overweening pride, mental intoxication and negligence, for the utter destruction, abandoning, ending, decay, fading out, ending, giving up and renunciation thereof these two conditions must be cultivated. What two?

* Calm and Insight. These two must be cultivated." (25)

("Ràgassa dosassa mohassa kodhassa upanàhassa makkhassa palàsassa issàya macchariyassa màyàya sàtheyyassa thambhassa sàrambhassa mànassa atimànassa madassa pamàdassa, bhikkhave, abhinnàya parinnàya parikkhayàyapahànàya khayàya vayàya viràgàya nirodhàya càgàya patinissaggàya dve dhammà bhàvetabbà katame dve?

Samatho ca vipassanà ca... pe...Ime dve dhammà bhàvetabbà ti"). (26)

According to the Discourse on "The Applications of Mindfulness" (Satipatthànasutta),the Discourse on "The Uninterrupted" (Annupadasuttam) -Middle Length Sayings Vol. I. and Vol. III - and many other discourses in Middle Length Sayings, if a person lives with insight, or practises insight, aloof from sensual pleasures and unskilled states of mind he will enter on and abide in the first meditation which is accompanied by the five meditative factors: initial thought, sustained thought, rapture, joy, and one - pointedness of mind. These five factors come and remove the five hindrances; initial thought removes sloth and torpor, sustained thought removes doubt, rapture removes ill - will, joy removes flurry and worry, and one - pointedness of mind removes sensual desire.

If the person allays initial and sustained thought, he will enter on and abide in the second meditation which is devoid of initial and sustained thought.

If he continues practising and allaying the meditative mental factor of rapture, he will enter on and abide in the third meditation which is accompanied with joy and one - pointedness of mind.

Again, if he gets rid of joy, anguish, he will enter on and abide in the fourth meditation being with equanimity and one - pointedness of mind

These four states of mind, from the first meditation to the fourth meditation, are psychological states of mind of the person who puts the operation of his Activities aggregate into meditation.

Again, if the person abides in the fourth meditation and cultivates insight (vipassanà) he will come to gradually destroy the "Ten mental defilements" (dasa kilesas) to attain the Four Sainthoods (ariyamaggam and ariyaphalam) as follows:

(1) Through insight (vipassanà), if he destroys the first three mental defilements: belief in personality (sakkàya-ditthi), doubt (vicikicchà) and attachment to rules and rituals (sìlabbataparàmàsa), he becomes a Stream-Enterer (Sotàpanna)

(2) If he continues cultivating and weakening sensuous craving (Kàmaràga) and ill - will (vyàpàda), he becomes an Once-Returner (Sakadàgàmi).

(3) If he destroys completely the above five mental defilements, he becomes a Never-Returner (Anàgàmi)

(4) Lastly, if he continues destroying the last five mental defilements: craving for fine material existence, craving for formless existence, conceit, restlessness and ignorance (ruùparàga, aruùparàga, màna, uddhacca and avijjà), he becomes an Arahanta who destroys completely all causes of sufferings.

During the period of time of practising insight (vipassanà), the practician puts the operation of Activities aggregate under the control of insight, or wisdom (pannà) ; this means the operation of wisdom, but not of ignorance (avijjà), which leads him to liberation and happiness in the here - and - now.

Such is the operation of Activities aggregate!

Operation of Perception aggregate:

As discussed before, Perception aggregate is conditioned by the other four aggregates, so its operation must be the operation of Consciousness, or of Activities, or of the twelve elements of Dependent Origination. In Kindred Sayings, Vol. III, Lord Buddha defined:

"And what, brethren, is perception? It is these six seats of perception: perception of sights, perceptionof sounds, of smells, tastes, and mental images. This is called perception. From the arising of contact (phassa) is the arising of perception, by the ceasing of contact is the ceasing of perception; this is that Ariyan Eightfold Path going to the ceasing of perception, to wit - right view, right understanding, ..., and right concentration". (27)

( "Katamà ca, bhikkhave, sannà // chayime, bhikkhave, sannàkàyà // ruùpasannà saddasannà gandhasannà rasasannà photthabbasannà dhammasannà ayam vuccati sannà // Phassasamudayà sannàsamudayo phassanirodhà sannànirodho // Ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo sannànirodhagàminìpatipadà//seyyathìdam sammàditthi // pe // sammàsamàdhi // la //vattam tesam natthi pannàpanàya//") (28)

From the above quotation, perception aggregate, as Consciousness aggregate, cannot arise without contact. With regard to the operation of Dependent Origination, it may be declared that: without ignorance, without activities, without consciousness, without Name-and-Form, without six - sense spheres, without feeling, without craving, without grasping, or without becoming, perception aggregate cannot arise. Inversely, without perception aggregate, the other aggregates or the twelve elements of Dependent Origination cannot arise. It is similar for the ceasing of perception and the ceasing of others. In other words, there are only conditions making up perceptionand others which exist, but no perception considered as entity exists. In realizing this truth, a person may detach from all aggregates. From that detachment, meaning from the ceasing of attachment or grasping, the operation of perception leading to its ceasing and the ceasing of all troubles will come into existence: this is what is a way of life of experience, but not of reasons, about which people must not ask why, as they must not ask why a bird can fly or a fish can swim.

Seeing the above operation means "right view"; thinking of it means "right thought" (or right understanding); striving to abide in that vision means "right action", "right livelyhood", and "right effort"; being mindful of it means "right mindfulness", concentrating one’s thought on it means "right concentration". This is a way of cultivating the "Eightfold Paths" leading to the cessasion of all sufferings.

Operation of Feeling aggregate:

Happiness or suffering is a feeling which belongs to Feeling aggregate. So, any operation of any aggregate or element of Dependent Origination leading to the arising of suffering means the operation leading to the arising of Feeling aggregate; any operation leading to the ceasing of Feeling aggregate, any operation leading to the ceasing of suffering means the operation leading to the ceasing of Feeling aggregate.

Lord Buddha taught:

" And what, brethren, is feeling? It is these six seats of feeling: feeling that is born of contactwith eye, feeling that is born of contact with ear, born of contact with nose, with tongue, with body, and with mind. That, brethren, is called feeling. Owing to the arising of contact there is arising of feeling - owing to the ceasing of contact, there is ceasing of feeling. This is that Eightfold Ariyan Path going to the ceasing of feeling, to wit: right view, right understanding, ..., right concentration." (29)

( "Katamà ca, bhikkhave, vedanà // Chayime, bhikkhave,vedanàkàyà// cakkhusamphassajà vedanà // sotasamphassajà vedanà // ghànasamphassajà // manosamphassajà ... // ayam vuccati bhikkhave, vedanà //

Phassasamudayà vedanàsamudayo phassanirodhà vedanànirodho // Ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo vedanànirodhagaminì patipàdà // seyyathìdam sammàditthi // pe // sammàsamàdhi //") (30)

It is quite evident that the satisfaction of feeling makes arise desire in a person’s mind and the person follow after pleasures from things. Without feeling, his desire becomes groundless and ceases to exist. If desire ceases, grasping comes to cease and suffering is not present. This is the ceasing of ignorance, of activities, of consciousness, of Name-and-Form, ..., and of becoming. So, the ceasing and arising of feeling are the very ceasing and arising of other aggregates or elements of Dependent Origination. In other words, the operation of feeling really is the operation of ignorance (avijjà), and the existence of feeling is but the existence of ignorance or of self - thought. If a person, through the practice of insight (vipassanà) realizes this operation, he will surely search for wisdom instead of the satisfaction of feeling. If not, he will be drowned in his feelings. With that wisdom, he will be happy living with what he is and what he has in the here - and - now without worries, and will open a new course of operation of mind to the destruction of feeling aggregate

Operation of Body aggregate:

Body aggregate is physical or material. People often have a feeling that it is not difficult to understand it, but in fact, it really is, because they can understand it only when they understand the operation of the five aggregates or of the twelve elements of Dependent Origination.

Lord Buddha said:

" And what, brethren, is body? - It is the four great elements. That, brethren, is called body.

From the arising of food is the arising of body, from the ceasing of food is the ceasing of body. And the way going to the ceasing of body is this Ariyan Eightfold Path, to wit: right view, right understanding, ..., right concentration." (31)

(" Katamanca, bhikkhave, ruùpam // Cattàro ca mahàbhuùtà catunnam ca mahàbhuùtànam upàdàya ruùpam idam vuccati, bhikkhave, ruùpam // Àhàrasamudayà ruùpasamudayo // àhàranirodhà ruùpanirodho // Ayam eva ariyo atthangiko maggo ruùpanirodhagàminì patipadà // seyyathìdam sammàditthi // la // sammàsamàdhi //".) (32)

Body aggregate is a physical body of a person which is a compound of the four great elements (water, fire, earth, and air). It is brought up by food. If food ceases, body ceases to exist. But food is not an entity, it is conditioned by the presence of the Earth, the Sun, etc. , this means by the whole physical world which says the existence of body is the existence of this whole world. According to Dependent Origination, this whole world is the meaning of becoming (bhava or tibhava) element which is conditioned by the operation of ignorance, of activities, of consciousness, etc. So, the arising and the ceasing of body aggregate is the arising and the ceasing of each aggregate or each element of Dependent Origination. And, as mentioned in "operation of feeling aggregate" above, the way of life to the ceasing of body is Eightfold Noble Path, in which "right view" and "right thought" may be known as a person’s regard of wisdom to things: for example, if the thirty two parts of body are observed, regarded closely again and again, as mentioned in (III.2.1.), they will be found empty. Because of that regard, the person comes to disgust at the body; owing to this disgust, he detaches from it. This is an operation of body controlled by wisdom which leads to the destruction of troubles.

In short, from Lord Buddha’s way of analysing the five aggregates, as well as Dependent Origination, and from the operation of the five aggregates and ignorance element the author has described, emerges the centralpoint of Lord Buddha’s teaching which is the emphasis on showing the truth of human beings’ suffering and the way to come out of it in introducing the truth of man and the world. This point is going to be separately mentioned.

III.2.3: THE FIVE AGGREGATES AND THE PROBLEM OF SUFFERING AND HAPPINESS

The first words Lord Buddha declared in His first Discourse at the Deer Park (Migadaya) are: "Life is nothing but suffering" and "The five aggregates are suffering". How important are they ! These words were repeated several times by Him and His disciples during fourty five years of His preaching Dhamma. Once, at Saàvatthi, He said:

" I will teach you, brethren, pain and the root of pain. Do you listen to it. And what, brethren, is pain? Body, brethren, is pain: feeling is pain: perception..., the activities ..., consciousness is pain. That, brethren, is the meaning of pain.

And what, brethren, is the root of pain? It is this craving that leads downward to rebirth, along with the lure and the lust, that lingers longingly now here now there: namely, the craving for sense, the craving for rebirth, the craving to have done with rebirth". (33)

("Aghan ca, bhikkhave, desissàmi aghamuølanca // tam sunàtha//. Katamanca, bhikkhave, agham // Ruùpam bhikkhave, agham // vedanà agham // sannà... // sankhàrà ... // vinnànam agham // Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, agham // Katamanca, bhikkhave, aghamuùlam // Yàyam tanhàponobbhavikà nandiràgasahagatà tatra tatràbhinandinì // seyyathìdam Kàmatanhà bhavatanhà vibhavatanhà // Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, aghamuùlan ti //"). (34)

The above teaching is Lord Buddha’s typical words on the suffering of human beings which is the result of the arising of Dependent Origination, also of the arising of the Five aggregates discovered by Him. This is a great discovery having brought Him to the position of the World - Honoured One. So, the true meaning of the search for truth of man is the very meaning of the search for the truth of suffering of life called the Noble truth of suffering. With regard to this truth, it is not the five aggreates - or human beings and the world - that cause suffering, but a person’s craving for the five aggregates that causes suffering. Now, the root meaning of the search for truth of man and life turns to the meaning of examining human beings’ craving for things. This is the meaning of the operation of craving element and of Activities aggregate the writer has discussed in (II.1.3.) and in (III.2.2.), and this is the very operation of Ignorance element (avijjà) of Dependent Origination.

Ignorance means a person’s wrong view and thought supposing that every existing thing has its own self (or soul), as explained in (II.1.3.) and (II.2.4.); it also means self - thought of a man. Therefore, studying self - thought is the main task of studying suffering and happiness of men, and of the search for truth of man and the world.

It is self - thought which makes up the essence andvalue of things and causes grasping leading to troubles as Lord Buddha explained:

" And how, brethren, is there grasping and worry? Herein, brethren, the untaught many - folk, who discern not those who are Ariyans, who are unskilled in the Ariyan doctrine, untrained in the Ariyan doctrine, ..., these regard body as the self, the self as having body, body as being in the self, the self as being in the body. Of such an one the body alters and becomes ortherwise. Owing to the altering and otherwiseness of the body, his consciousness is busied with the altering body. From this being busied with the altering body, worried thoughts arise and persist, laying hold of the heart. From this laying hold of the heart he becomes troubled, and owing to vexation and clinging he is worried.

So also with perception, feeling, the activities and consciousness. Thus, brethren, comes grasping and worry". (35)

("Katham ca, bhikkhave, upàdà - paripassana hoti // Idha, bhikkhave, assutavà puthujjano ariyànam adassàvì ariyadhammassa akovido ariyadhamme avinìto sappurisànam adassàvi sapprisa - dhammassa akovido sappurisadhamme avinìto ruøpam attato sumanupassati // ruøpavantam và attànam // Tassa tam ruøpam ruøpasmim và attànam // Tassa tam ruøpam viparinamati annathà hoti // tassaruøpaviparinàmannathàbhàvà ruøpaviparinàm-ànuparivatti vinnathàbhàvà hoti // tassa ruøpaviparinàmànuparivattajà paritassanà dhammasamuppàdà cittam pariyàdàyà titthanti // cetaso pariyàdàna uttàsavà ca hoti vighàtavà ca apekhavà ca upàdàya ca paritassati // Vedanam attato samanussapati...

Sannam // pe // sankhàre // pe // Vinnànam... //

Evam kho, bhikkhave, upàdàparitassanà hoti //") (36)

The fountain-head of grasping and worry (or suffering) is therefore the regard of self-thought of a person. Grasping and suffering do not come from outside, but from the very regard to things of man which may be completely controled by an individual, and so happiness of man may also come from that regard. In the next paragraph of the Discourse quoted above, Lord Buddha affirmed: if a person regards no body, or no feeling, or no perception, or no activities as the self, ..., when the five aggregates alter and become otherwise, worried thoughts do not arise in his heart, and he does not come to grasp or worry about anything. Without grasping and worrying, he feels free and happy in the here - and - now. Such is the true way to happiness which really lies in oneself and in the very regard to things of a person. This regard is nothing other than "right view" factor of the Eightfold Noble Path which is the most important factor of the Buddhist way to the Noble Truth and Bliss, Nibbàna. It is the seeing things as selflessness. The regard which sees the impermanence and suffering of things will also bring men the same result of freedom and happiness as the following teaching shows:

"Body, brethren, is impermanent. Feeling... Perception, Activities... Consciousness...

So seeing, brethren, the well - taught Ariyan disciple to repelled by body, is repelled by feeling by perception; by the activities, by consciousness. Being repelled by it he lusts not for it: not lusting he is set free; in this freedom comes insight that it is a being free. Thus he realizes; "Rebirth is destroyed, lived is the righteous life, done is my task, for life in these conditions there is no here after". (37)

("Ruùpam, bhikkhave, aniccam // vedanà... // sanna... // sankhàrà... Vinnanam aniccam // Evam passam, bhikkhave, sutavà ariyasàvako rupasmim pi nibbindati // sankhàresu pi nibbindati // vinnanasmim pi nibbindati // nibbindam virajjati viràgà vimuccati vimuttasmim vimuttam iti nanam hoti // khinàjàti vusitam brahmacariyam katam karànìyam nàparam itthattàyàti pajànàtìti //") (38)

The above mentioned regard seeing selflessness, impermanence and suffering of the five aggregates is called the regard seeing the "Three Marks of Existence". This is the source of true happiness that can be tested and experienced by a worldly man in this life as declared by Lord Buddha:

" All forms are selfless" he who knows and sees this truth becomes passive in pain; this is the way that leads to purity". (39) (Dhp. 279)

("Sabbe dhammà anattà" ti yadà pannàya passati, Atha nibbidanti dukkhe, esa maggo visuddhiyà") (40)

" All created things perish" he who knows and sees this truth becomes passive in pain; this is the way to purity". (41) (Dhp. 277)

("Sabbe sankhàrà aniccà" ti yadà pannàya passati, Atha nibbidanti dukkhe, esa maggo visuddhiyà") (42)

" All created things are grief and pain" he who knows and sees this becomes passive in pain: this is the way to purity". (43) (Dhp. 278)

("Sabbe sankhàrà dukkhà" ti yadà pannàya passati, Atha nibbidanti dukkhe, esa maggo visuddhiyà" ) (44)

Here, the truth of suffering and happiness and the problem of the Way to the Noble truth and happiness appear very simple, but human beings’ way of thinking and feeling is too complicated to accept them, then comes to doubt about them. In the deep of a person’s mind, there is a thought that without desires, especially sensual and sexual desires, his life becomes empty and meaningless. In the deep of a person’s heart (or feeling), there exists a feeling considering his Self his desires: If his desires are destroyed, his self has no condition to survive. These twothings hinder his mind from seeing and accepting the truth discussed above. These are the reasons why Lord Buddha hesitated before He turned "the Wheel of Dhamma", and are the reasons requiring modern systems of education to play wonderfully their role in educating men to make a choice between lasting suffering and true happiness, or between taking up the burden and laying down the burden as Lord Buddha taught:

"The burden is indeed the fivefold mass:
The seizer of the burden, man:
Taking it up is sorrow in this world:
The laying of it down is bliss.

If a man lay this heavy burden down,
And take not any other burden up:
If he draws out that craving, root of all,
No more an - hungered, he is free". (45)

("Bhàrà have pancakkhandhà //
bhàrahàro ca puggalo //
bhàràdànam dukkham loke //
bhàranikkhepanam sukham //

Nikkhipitvà garum bhàram //
annam bhàram ànàdìya //
samuùlam tanham abbhuyha //
nicchàto parinibbuto ti //"). (46)

People should lay down the burden, or deal with craving for the five aggregates, of course, because of these two reasons:

(1) Because of seeing the dangers caused by the desire for the satisfaction of the five aggregates, such as sorrow, grief; woe, lamentation and despair.

(2) Because of seeing the profit gained from the restraining of craving for the five aggregates, such as a peaceful mind coming from the absence of sorrow, grief, woe, lamentation and despair, regardless of the change of things.

This is a very practical, existential and wise choice to be made. Otherwise, human beings are but shadows staggering in life without hope for peace.

However, when people go on their ways of dealing with craving and grasping, they must surely face to difficulties arising from their sensual, sexual desire, desire for existence and desire for non - existence, then lots of doubts will arise in them and question: what will happen to them on a desireless way of life so quiet? How can they leave their intimate desires for sensuality, sexuality, existence and non-existence for unknown states of mind that seem to be so tasteless to them? etc- These are very rough questions that have made people flinch in thinking of the way to come out of them. The author with his determination will come to search for their solutions in the next part with a belief that true values will be explored somehow.

REFERENCES:

(1) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III, PTS, Oxford, 1992, pp. 59-60. Also see Theragàthà, No. 69.
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(4) : Samyutta - Nikàya, Vol. III,...,pp. 47-48.
(5) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III,...,pp. 21.
(6) : Samyutta - Nikàya, Vol. III,...,pp. 22.
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(14) : Samyutta - Nikàya, Vol. III,... pp. 119.
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(28) : Samyutta- Nikàya, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1975,p. 60.
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(39) : Dhammapada, Verse 279, tr. by F. Max Muller, Sacred Books of the East.
(40) : Dhammapada, Verse279, Devanàgari,.., 1977.
(41) : Dhammapada, Verse 277, tr. by F. Max Muller,..
(42) : Dhammapada, Verse 277, Devanàgari,...
(43) : Dhammapada, Verse 278,...
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(45) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III,..., p. 25.
(46) : Samyutta - Nikàya, Vol. III,..., p. 26.

 

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