Buddhist Psychology

 

The Concept of Personality Revealed
Through The Pancanikaya

Ven. Thich Chon-Thien

Institute of Buddhist Studies
Saigon, Vietnam, 1995

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Part Two: Dependent Origination
(Paticcasamuppada)

II.1 Chapter 1

The Meaning of Dependent Origination

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II.1.1: CAUSE - CAUSAL LAW - CAUSAL HAPPENING - THINGS AS HAVING CAUSALLY HAPPENED.

To understand well the doctrine of Dependent Origination, which is out of all extremes of point of view, the writer thinks one needs to grasp the meaning of its details.

What is cause?
When this thing is present, that thing exists;
When this thing is not present, that thing does not exist.

"This thing" is called the cause of "that thing". In other words, the cause of one thing is the main element that determines its presence. For example, the seed of a mango is the cause of a mango-tree. According to Lord Buddha's teachings, a seed of a mango is called the chief cause (Paccaya or hetu); the other elements or causes making up the mango-tree are called causes (nidàna or paccaya). In Pàli language, the Chief cause is called "hetu", "samudaya", the other causes are called "paccaya" or"nidàna" (meaning condition). Both the chief cause and other cause are called nidàna.

What is the causal Law? (or Law of Dependent Origination).

Lord Buddha taught:

" Conditioned by ignorance, activities come to pass; conditioned by activities, consciousness comes to pass; conditioned by consciousness, name - and - form come to pass; conditioned by name - and - form, the six senses come to pass; conditioned by six senses, touch comes to pass; conditioned by touch, feeling comes to pass; conditioned by feeling, craving comes to pass; conditioned by craving, grasping comes to pass; conditioned by grasping, becoming comes to pass; conditioned by becoming, birth comes to pass; conditioned by birth, old age and death, grief, lamentation, suffering, sorrow, despair come to pass. Such is the uprising of this entire mass of ill. This, brethren, is called "Causal happening".

But from utter fading away and ceasing of ignorance [comes] ceasing of activities; from ceasing of activities [comes] ceasing of consciousness; ...; from ceasing of birth [comes] ceasing of old age and death, ... despair. Such is the ceasing of this entire of ill". (1)

(" Avijjàpaccayà, bhikkhave, sankhàrà // sankhàrapaccayà vinnànam// vinnànapaccayà nàmarupam//nàmarupapaccayà salàyatanam //salàyatanapaccayà phasso// phassapaccayà vedanà// vedanàpaccayà tanhà // tanhapaccayà upàdànam // upàdànapaccayà bhavo // bhavapaccayà jàti // jàtipaccayà jaràmaranam soka - parideva - dukkhadomanassupàyasà sambhavanti // Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti // Ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, samuppàdo // //

Avijjaya tveva asesaviràganirodhà sankhàranirodhovinnànanirodho // vinnànan-irodhà nàmaruùpanirodho // nàmaruùpanirodhà salàyatananirodho // salàyatananirodhà phassanirodho // phassanirodhà vedanànirodho // vedanànirodhà tanhànirodho // tanhànirodhà upàdànanirodho // upàdànanirodhà bhavanirodho // bhavanirodhà jàtinirodho // jàtinirodhà jaràmaranam soka - pari - deva - dukkha... nirujjhanti // Evam-etassa kevalassa dukkh-akkhandhassa nirodho hotii ti // //"). (2)

What is causal happening?

--" What, brethren, is causal happening?

Conditioned by rebirth is decay - and - death -whether, brethren, there be an arising of Tathàgatas, or whether there be no such arising, this nature of things just stands, this causal status, this causal orderliness, the relatedness of this or that. Concerning that the Tathàgata is fully enlightened, that He fully understands. Fully enlightened, fully understanding He declares it, sets it forth, manifests, explains; makes it plain, saying "behold" ! Conditioned by rebirth is decay - and - death, conditioned by becoming is rebirth, ..., conditioned by ignorance are activities. Whether, brethren, there be an arising of Tathàgatas, or whether there be no such arising, this nature of things just stands,...". (3)

(" Katamo ca, bhikkhave, paticca-samuppàdo //jàtipaccayà, bhikkhave, jaràmaranam uppàdà và Tathàgatànam anuppàdà và Tathàgatànam // thità va sà dhàtu dhammatthitatà dhammaniyàmatà idappaccayata// //Tam Tathàgato abhisambujjhati abhisameti // abhisambujjhitvà

bhisametvà àcikkhati deseti pannàpeti patthapeti vivarati vibhajati uttàniì - karoti passathàti càha // Jàtipaccayà, bhikkhave, jàràmaranam // ... //avijjàpaccayà bhikkhave, sankhàrà uppàdà và Tathagatànam anuppadà và Tathàgatànam // thità va sà dhàtu dhammatthitatà dhammaniyàmatà idappaccayatà // tam Tathàgato abhisambhujjhati abhisameti // ... "). (4)

What are things as having causally happened?

--" And what, brethren, are things as having causally happened? Decay - and - death is impermanent, conditioned, arisen causally, is by nature withering away, passing away, fading away, coming to an end. So too is birth, becoming, grasping, craving, feeling, contact, sixfold sense, name - and - form, cousciousness, activities, ignorance. These, brethren, are called things as having causally conditioned". (5)

(" Katame ca, bhikkhave, paticcasamuppannà dhammà // // Jaràmaranam bhikkhave, aniccam sankhatam paticcasamuppannam hayadhammam vayadhammam viràga dhammam nirodhadhammam // Jàti, bhikkhave, aniccà... // Bhavo, bhikkhave, anicco... // ... // Avijjà, bhikkhave, aniccà sankhatà paticcasamuppannà khayadhammà vayadhammà viràgadhammà nirodhadhammà //ime. vuccanti, bhikkhave, paticcasamuppa-nnà dhammà // "). (6)

As shown in the Buddha's teachings quoted above, every existing thing is conditioned. In fact, it is but the presence of conditions originating it, so it is selfless or unsubstantial. A man also is an existing thing, so it is conditioned and selfless. Those who can see this truth of Dependent Origination, see existing things; those who can see existing things, see the principle of Dependent Origination. And those who can see those things, see Lord Buddha Himself, as He said:

" Hush, Vakkali ! What is there in seeing this vile body of mine? He who seeth the Norm, Vakkali, he seeth me; he who seeth me, Vakkali, he seeth the Norm". (7)

(" Alam, Vakkali, kim te iminà putikàyena ditthena //Yo kho, Vakkali, dhammam passati so mam passati // yo mam passati so dhammam passati //") (8)

And:

" This was said by Lord Buddha: "Whoever sees conditioned genesis sees dhamma, whoever sees dhamma, sees conditioned genesis. These are generated by conditions; that is to say, the five groups of grasping. Whatever among these five groups of grasping is desire, sensual pleasure, affection, catching at, that is the uprising of anguish. Whatever among these five groups of grasping is the control of desire and attachment, the ejection of desire and attachment that is the stopping of anguish. Up to this point, your reverences, much has been done by the monk". (9)

(" Yo paticcasamuppàdam passati so dhammam passati, yo dhammam passati so paticcasamuppaàdam passati. Paticcasamup-pannà kho pan' ime yadidam panc' upàdànakkhandhà. Yo imesu pancas' upàdànakkhandhesu chando àlayo anunayo ajjhosànam so dukkhasamudayo, yo imesu pancas'upàdànakkhandhes chandaràgavinayo chandaràgapahànam so dukkhanirodho. Ettàvatà pi kho, àvuso bhikkhuno, bahu katam hoti".) (10)

The above quotations in the opinion of the author point out three very important things, which are:

-- The truth of everything, of Dependent Origination and of the Tathàgatas are the same. In other words, there exists only one Noble truth for all Dhammas in this universe.

----What is called a man is nothing but the five aggregates of grasping (pancas' upàdanakkhandhà) which are conditioned and therefore selfless.

So, the Buddhist concept of personality must be derived from the above two doctrines.

-- Suffering of men or the cessation of men's suffering (or happiness) actually is the uprising or stopping desires for the five aggregates. This discovery is very useful to educators in building up a course of education for the happiness of men.

In addition to the above things, another point should be noticed: the meaning of "seeing conditioned genesis" is to be understood as the result of the control of desire for and attachment to the five aggregates. It requires one's mind to be educated, trained, cultivated. In other words, it requires a way of education.

II.1.2: THE MEANING OF THE TWELVE CAUSES

At first, a man needs to grasp the meaning of each element of the Dependent Origination which is always mentioned as including twelve causes: Ignorance (Avijjà), Activities (Sankhàra), Consciousness (Vinnàna), Name - and - Form (Nàma - Ruùpa), Six bases (Salàyatana), Touch (Phassa), Feeling (Vedana). Craving (Tanhà), Grasping (Upàdàna), Becoming (Bhava), Birth (Jàti), Old - age and Death, Grief, Lamentation, Illness, Sorrow and Despair (Jarà - Marana...).

However, in some places, Lord Buddha presentedthe Dependent Origination in a simpler form of eight, nine, or ten elements as follows:

" Thus, Ànanda , mind - and - body conditions consciousness and consciousness conditions mind -and - body, mind - and - body conditions contact, contact conditions feeling, feeling conditions craving, craving conditions grasping, grasping conditions becoming, becoming conditions birth, birth conditions aging - and - death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and distress. Thus this whole mass of suffering comes into existense". (11)

(" Iti kho, Ànanda, nàmaruùpa - paccayà vinnànam, vinnàna- paccayà nàmaruùpam, nàmaruùpa- paccayà phasso, phassa - paccayà vedanà, vedanà -paccayà tanhà, tanhà- paccayà upàdànam, upàdàna- paccayà bhavo, bhava- paccayà jàti, jàti - paccayà jarà - maranam, jarà - marana- paccayà soka- parideva - dukkha- domanassupàyàsà sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti".) (12)

The above quotation shows that there are only eight elements existing in the Dependent Origination. Below is the quotation presenting only ten elements:

" Then, monks, the Bodhisatta Vipassì thought:

"This consciousness turns back at mind - and- body, it does not go any further. To this extent there is birth and decay, there is death and falling into other states and being reborn, namely: mind - and- body conditions consciousness and consciousness conditions mind - and - body, mind - and - body conditions the six sense bases, the six sense bases conditions contact, contact conditions feeling, feeling conditions craving, craving conditions grasping, grasping conditions becoming, becoming conditions birth, birth conditions aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and distress. And thus this whole mass of sufferings takes its origin". (13)

(" Atha kho, bhikkhave, Vipassissa Bodhisattassa etadahosi: "Paccudàvattati kho idam vinnànam nàmaruùpamhà, nàparam gacchati. Ettàvatà jàyetha và jìyetha và mìyetha và cavetha và uppajjetha và yadidam nàmarupa - paccayà vinnànam, vinnàna- paccayà nàmaruùpam, nàmaruùpa- paccayà salàyatanam, salayatana paccayà phasso, phassa - paccayà vedanà, vedanà -paccayà tanhà, tanhà- paccayà upàdànam, upàdana - paccayà bhavo, bhava paccayà jàti, jàti - paccayà jarà - maranam soka- parideva- dukkha - domanassa - upàyàsà sambhavanti. Evam- etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti".) (14)

The simplest form taught by Lord Buddha is as follows:

"What brethren, is the arising of ill? Because of sight and visible objects, visual consciousness arises; contact is the clash of the three; feeling is conditioned by the contact, craving by the feeling. This, brethren, is the arising of ill".(15)

(" Katamo ca, bhikkhave, dukkhassa samudayo // cakkhum ca paticca rupe ca uppajjati cakkhuvinnànam//tinnam sangatiphasso// phassa-paccayà vedanà // vedanà paccayà tanhà // Ayam kho, bhikkhave, dukkhassa samudayo // //"). (16)

The above teaching contains only five elements of the Dependent Origination. In fact, it depends on the places where Lord Buddha felt necessary to present it in what form (eight, nine, ten, five or twelve elements or more). Below is the form presented in twenty three elements.

"Now, therefore, brethren, activities are in causal association with ignorance, consciousness is in causal association with activities, name - and - form with consciousness, the sixfold sense sphere with name - and - form, contact with..., feeling with..., craving with..., grasping with..., becoming with..., birth with..., sorrow with birth, faith with sorrow, joy with faith, rapture with joy, serenity with rapture, concentration with serenity, the knowledge and vision into things as they really are with concentration, repulsion with the knowledge and vision..., passionlessness with repulsion, liberation with passionlessness, knowledge about extinction [of intoxicants] with liberation". (17)

("Iti kho, bhikkhave, avijjuøpanisà sankhàrà //sankhàruøpani sàmvinnànam// vinnànuøpani-sam nàmaruøpam // nàmaruøpuøpanisam salàyatanam // salàyatanuøpaniso phasso // phassuøpanisà vedanà // vedànuøpanisà tanhà // tanhuøpanisam upàdànam // upàdànuøpaniso bhavo // bhavuøpanisà jàti // jàtuøpànisam dukkham // dukkhàpanisà saddhà // saddhuøpanisam pàmojjam // pàmojjuøpanisà pìti // pìtuøpanisà passaddhi // passaddhuøpanisam sukham // sukhuøpaniso samàdhi // samadhuøpanisam yathàbhutamnànadassanam// yathàbhuøtan-ànadassanuøpanisà nibbidà // nibbiduøpaniso viràgo viràguøpanisà vimutti // vimuttuø panisam khaye nànam //"). (18)

Among the different forms of the Dependent Origination presented in Suttapitaka, the form of twelve elements is understood as the most typical form to be examined in this work.

The above quotations, regardless of the forms of expression, all introduce the mental process operating from ignorance (avijjà) to suffering (dukkha) or to the knowledge about extinction of suffering as well as the truth of men, life and their relationship. This will be discussed in details next.

Ignorance (avijjà):

What is ignorance? -- Lord Buddha defined:

" Nescience concerning ill, its rise, its cessation and concerning the way going to the cessation of ill. This is called ignorance". (19)

("Katamà ca, bhikkhave, avijjà // // Yam kho, bhikkhave, dukkhe annànam dukkhasamudaye annànam dukkhanirodhe annànam dukkhanirodhagàminiyà patipadàya annànam// Ayam, vuccati, bhikkhave, avijià // "). (20)

Nescience concerning ill, its rise, ... means nescience concerning the Four Noble Truths, law of Kamma, and the Dependent Origination is ignorance.

In the Discourse of Sammàditthi (Majjhimanikàya, Vol.I., PTS, London, 1987, p.70). Mahàthera Sàriputta, the chief disciple of Lord Buddha, defined:

" When, your reverences, a disciple of the aryans comprehends the cankers thus, comprehends the uprising of the cankers thus, comprehends the stopping..., comprehends the course leading to the stopping...,he having got rid of all addiction to attachment, having dispelled addiction to shunning, having abolished addiction to the latent view "I am", having got rid of ignorance, having made knowledge arise, is here-now an end-maker of anguish..." (21)

(" Yato kho àvuso ariyasàvako evam àsavam pajànàti, evam àsavanirodham pajànàti, evam àsavanirodhagàmini - patipadam pajànàti, so sabbaso ràgànusayam pahàya patighànusayam pativinodetvà asmiìti ditthimànànusayam samuhanitvà avijjam pahàya vijjam uppàdetvà ditthe va dhamme dukkhass' antakaro hoti".) (22)

Mahàthera Sàriputta's definition means that conception of "I am" or "I was" or "I will be" or conception of personality which is this or that, is ignorance. And it is ignorance which is the fountain-head of wrong thoughts, activities and suffering. It is the operation of ignorance which leads to Activities, Conciousness, Name - and - Form, the Sixfold sense sphere, Touch, Feeling, Craving, Grasping, Becoming, Birth, Old-age and Death ..., and therefore each element of the above means suffering; man or life means suffering.

Activities (sankhàra):

What are activities? -- Lord Buddha said:

" These are three activities: those of deed, speech and mind. These are activities". (23)

("Tayo me, bhikkhave, sankhàrà kàyasankhàro vacìsankhàro cittasankhàro // Ime vuccanti, bhikkhave, sankhàrà //"). (24)

This teaching means all the activities of a whole man are of sankhàra. Another time, Lord Buddha taught:

" And what, brethren, are the activities? They are these seats of will: the will for sights, the will for sounds, for smells, for tastes, for touches, and for mental images. These, brethren, are the activities". (25)

("Katamà ca, bhikkhave, sankhàrà // chayime, bhikkhave, cetanàkàyà // ruùpasancetanà saddasancetanà gandhasancetanà rasasance-tanà photthabbasancetanà dhammasancetanà ime vuccanti, bhikkhave, sankhàrà //'). (26)

In this quotation, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches and mental images are what makes up the phenomenon, and the Activities (sankhàra) appears as the mental forces of it. The world people see really is the world created by the Activities, and is the result of what people call "Will to live".

Activities have another meaning as shown below:

"That which we will, and that which we intend to do, and that wherewithal we are occupied. This becomes an object for the persistence of Consciousness; the object being there, there comes to be a station of Consciousness. Consciousness being stationed and growing, there comes to pass descent of name - and - shape; because of name - and - shape, sense; because of sense, contact; ... Such is the uprising of the entire mass of ill.

Even we do not will nor intend to do, yet if we are occupied about something, this too results in the same. But if we neither will, nor intend to do, nor are occupied about something, there is no becoming of an object for the persistence of consciousness. The object being absent, there comes to be no station of consciousness. Consciousness not being stationed or growing, there comes to pass no descent of name - and - shape; hence cessation of sense..., of contact... of feeling... of craving... of becoming... of birth... of decay- and death. Such is the cessation of this entire mass of ill". (27)

(" Yanca, bhikkhave, ceteti yanca pakappeti yanacaanuseti // àrammanam etam hoti vinnànassa thitiyà // àrammane sati patitthà vinnànassa hoti// tasmim patitthite vinnàne virulhe nàmaruùpassa avakkanti hoti // // Nàmaruùpapaccayà salàyatanam // ... pe...Evam etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandh-assa samudayo hoti // //

No ce, bhikkhave, ceteti no ca pakappeti atha ce anuseti // àrammanam etam hoti vinnànassa thitiyà // àrammane sati patitthà vinnànassa hoti // // Tasmim patitthite vinnàne viruùlhe nàmaruùpassa avakkanti hoti // // Nàmaruùpapaccayà salàyatanam // pe... // Evam etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti // //

Ya ca kho, bhikkhave, no ceteti no ca pakappeti no ca anuseti // àrammanam etam no hoti vinnànassa thitiyà //... pe ... // Evam etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hotì ti //"). (28)

This quotation says to us Activities are one's Kamma which is the cause of sufferings in this life and the cause of taking rebirth.

Consciousness (Vinnàna)

What is consciousness? -Lord Buddha taught:

" These are the six groups of consciousness:

Eye - consciousness, ear - consciousness, smell-consciousness, taste - consciousness, touch -consciousness, and mind - consciousness". (29)

("Katamanca, bhikkhave, vinnànam // Chayime, bhikkhave, vinnànakàyà // Cakkhuvinnànam sotavinnànam ghànavinnànam jivhàvinnànam kàyavinnànam manovinnànam // Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, vinnànam //") (30)

It is explained that:

" And why, brethren, do you say Consciousness?

One is conscious, brethren. Therefore the word "Consciousness" is used. Conscious of what? of [flavour] sour or bitter, acrid or sweet, alkaline or non - alkaline, saline or non - saline. One is conscious, brethren. That is why the word "Consciousness" is used". (31)

("Kinca, bhikkhave, vinnànam vadetha // vijànàtìti kho, bhikkhave tasmà vinnànamti vuccati // kinca vijànàti // ambilam pi vijànàti // tittakam pi vijànàtiì // katukam pi vijànàti madhukam pi vijànàti / khàrikam pi vijànàti // akhàrikam pi vijànàti // lonakam pi vijànàti // alonakam pi vijànàti // vijànàtììti kho, bhikkhave, tasmà vinnànan ti vuccati //"). (32)

The commentators of Suttas explained the word "consciousness" that:

- It means awareness (Sanjànàti ). -
- It means discrimination (Vijànàti ). -
- It means decision (Pajànàti ).

Being conscious of the six sense - objects, as LordBuddha affirmed, is the source of man's knowledges, man's attachment to the world and man's sufferings. It conditions name - and - form and other elements, so it is recognized as the subject of cognition, the object of cognition and the content of it. It exists in all mental, oral and bodily activities.

Name-and-Form (Nàma-Rùpa):

What are Name-and-Form? - Lord Buddha defined:

" Feeling, Perception, Will, Contact, work of mind; this is called Name.The four great elements and the form derived from them; this is called form. This is the Name, this is the Form called Name-and-Form". (33)

("Katamanca, bhikkhave, nàmarupam // Vedanà sannà cetanà phasso manasikàro // idam vuccati nàmam // Cattàro ca mahàbhuøtà catunnanca mahàbhuøtànam upàdàya ruøpam idam vuccati rupam // Iti idanca nàmam idanca ruùpam//Idam vuccati nàmaruùpam //".) (34)

Feeling, Perception, Will, Contact, Work of mind, from the above teaching, are of the aggregates of Feeling, Perception, Will and Consciousness; Form is Form Aggregate. Name - and - Form are therefore the five Aggregates of man (Pancakkhandha).

In the discourse of Mahànidàna (Length Sayings - Dìghanikàya), Lord Buddha gave more explanation:

" I have said that cognition is the cause of Name-and-Form. Now in what way that is so, Ànanda, is to be understood after this manner. Were cognition not to descend into the mother's womb, would Name-and-Form become constitued therein? - It would not, Lord. Were cognition, after having descended into the mother's womb, to be extinct, would Name-and-Form come to birth in this state of being? It would not, Lord. Were cognition to be extirpated from one yet young, youth or maiden, would Name-and-Form attain to growth, development, expansion? - It would not, Lord.

Wherefore, Ànanda, just that is the ground, the basis, the genesis, the cause of Name-and-Form, to wit, cognition". (35)

("Vinnàna - paccayà nàma - rupan ti" iti kho pan'etam vuttam, tad Ànanda iminà p'etam pariyàyena veditabbam yathà vinnàna - paccayà nàma - rupam. Vinnànam va hi Ànanda màtu kucchim na okkamissatha, api nu kho nàmarupam màtu kucchismim samucchissathàti ?".

" No h'etam, bhante".

" Vinnànam va hi Ànanda màtu kucchim okkamitvà vokkasissatha, api nu kho nàma - rupam thattaàya abhinibbattissathàti?".

" No h'etam bhante".

" Vinnànam va hi Ànanda, daharass" eva sato vocchijjissatha kumàrassa và kumàrikàya và, api nu kho nàma ruùpam vuddhim, virulhim vepullamàpajjissathàti?".

'No h'etam bhante?'. '

Tasmàt ih' Ànanda es'eva hetu etam nidànam esa samudayo esa paccayo nàma rupassa, yadidam vinnànam".) (36)

In the relationship of the twelve elements of the Dependent Origination, as disclosed in the quotations mentioned above it will not be right to say that Name - and - Form and Consciousness are the same or different from each other, because they really are not entities having a fixed nature, but relate closely to each other: In consciousness (or Cognition) exist the other eleven elements; also in Name - and - Form exist the other eleven ones. Both come from Ignorance and both lead to suffering.

Sixfold sense sphere (Salàyatana):

What is sixfold sense sphere?

" The sense of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. This is called sixfold sense". (37)

("Katamanca, bhikkhave, salàyatanam // cakkhàyatanam sotàyatanam ghànàyatanam jivhàyatanam kàyàyatanam manàyatanam /Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, salàyatanam //"). (38)

Saying the sixfold sense sphere means saying the meeting of the six sense - organs and the six sense objects. When this meeting appears, Consciousness appears; so the sixfold sense sphere itself implies ignorance and suffering.

Contact (Phassa):

What is Contact? The Buddha declared :

" There are these six groups of contact; eye- contact, ear - contact, nose - contact, tongue - contact, body - contact, and mind - contact. This is called Contact". (39)

("Katamo ca, bhikkhave, phasso // Chayime, bhikkhave,phassakàyà // Cakkhusamphasso sotasamphasso ghànasamphasso jivhàsamph-asso kàyasamphasso manosamphasso // Ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, phasso /".) (40)

Contact is only the meeting of three elements: sense organ, sense object and the consciousness regarding to the sense organ. This also means the meeting of the subject of cognition, the object of cognition and the content of cognition. Contact is therefore the manifestation of consciousness or ignorance, or suffering.

 

Feeling (Vedàna):

What is feeling? - Similarly, Lord Buddha taught:

 

"There are these six groups of feeling: feeling that is born of eye - contact, feeling that is born of ear -contact, feeling that is born of nose - contact, feeling that is born of tongue - contact feeling that is born of body - contact, feeling that is born of mind - contact. This is called feeling". (41)

("Katamà ca, bhikkhave, vedanà // Chayime, bhikkhave, vedanàkàyà // cakkhu - samphassajà vedanà // sotasamphassajà vedanà //kàyasamphassajà vedanà // manosamphassajà vedanà//Ayam vuccati, bhikkave, vedanà //". (42)

There are three kinds of feeling as they are often introduced in many discourses recorded in Pancanikàya: happy feeling, painful feeling and indifferent one.

The happy feeling always produces more craving or desire in one's mind. The painful one always produces anger. The last one always fosters illusion. Feeling is, therefore, the source nurturing desire, anger and illusion. It really is the maker of rebirth and suffering.

 

Craving (tanhà):

What is craving? - Lord Buddha showed:

 

" There are these six groups of craving: craving for things seen, for things heard, for odours, for tastes, for things tangible, for ideas. This is called craving". (43)

("Katamà ca, bhikkhave, tanhà // Chayime, bhikkhave, tanhàkayà // Ruâpatanhà saddatanhà gandhatanhà rasatanhà photthabbatanhà dhammatanhà // Ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, tanhà //". (44)

In the discourse of Right View (Sammàdi-tthisuttam), Mahàthera Sàriputta mentioned three groups of craving as follows:

 

" And what, your reverences, is the uprising of anguish? That craving which is connected with again - becoming, accompanied by delight and attachment, finding delight in this and that, namely the craving for sense pleasures, the craving for becoming, and the craving for annihilation-this, your reverences, is called the origin of anguish". (45)

(" Katamo c'àvuso, dukkhasamudayo: Yà'yam tanhà ponobhavikà nandiràgasahagatà tatratatràbhinandinì, seyyathìdam : Kàmata-nhà bhavatanhà vibhavatanhà, ayam vuccat'àvuso dukkhasamudayo".) (46)

Craving for pleasures means craving for the satisfaction of forms, sounds, odours, tastes and touches. This means sensual pleasures.

Craving for becoming (bhava) means craving for existence, survival in good states of life, or in happier and more delicate states of existence.

Craving for annihilation means craving for non - existence because of the tiresome existence.

As everybody can experience in his daily life, one comes into existence to live with his thirst for happiness and pleasures derived from the six sense - objects. But, unfortunately, everything , every pleasure changes from moment to moment, and this brings man doleful sufferings and makes man's desires burst into flames. The more his desires burst into flames, the more suffering he experiences... This says that craving means the root cause of suffering, or suffering itself.

 

Grasping (Upàdàna):

What is grasping? - The Buddha said:

 

" There are the four graspings; grasping of desire, grasping of opinion, grasping of rule and ritual, and grasping of soul - theory.This is called grasping". (47)

(" Katamanca, bhikkhave, upàdànam // Cattarimàni, bhikkhave, upàdànàni // Kàmupàdànam ditthupàdànam sìlabbatupà-dànam attavàdupàdànam // Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, upàdanam //".) (48)

The truth of suffering of life forces men to grasp their desire and what they desire for as a means to look for happiness. Men then come to consider their desire and thought as what of their Self, and consider their Self true. This phenomenon produces the grasping of desire, opinion and soul-theory and strengthens ignorance and suffering. On the other hand, their "self - thought" also produces craving for and grasping of things.

 

Becoming (Bhava):

What is becoming? It is defined that:

 

" There are these becomings: becoming in Kàma (worlds), becoming in Rupa (worlds), and becoming in Aruøpa (worlds)". (49)

("Katamo ca, bhikkhave, bhavo // Tayo me, bhikkhave, bhavà // Kàmabhavo ruùpabhavo arùpabhavo//Ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, bhavo".) (50)

Becoming means existence. It shows states in which beings exist. Kàma worlds are the worlds where beings desire for forms, sounds, smells, tastes and touches. Ruøpaworlds are states where beings desire for delicate forms, existence and survival. Aruøpa worlds are spheres where beings are tired of sensual desire and even desire for existence; they tend to desire for non - existence.

Becoming is therefore the manifestation of craving.

Birth (Jàti):

What is birth? It is explained as follows.

" That which, of this and that being in this or that group, is birth, continuous birth, descent, reproductive, appearance of component factors' acquiring of sense - spheres. This is called birth".(51)

(" Katamà ca, bhikkhave, jàti // Yà tesam sattànam tamhi tamhi sattanikàye jàti sanjàti okkanti abhinibbatti khandhànam pàtubhàvo àyatanànam patilàbho//Ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, jàti//".) (52)

For human beings, the appearance of name - and - form, or the five aggregates, is called birth. So, birth is the appearance of ignorance and suffering.

Old Age and Death (Jàra - marana):

" What is old age and death? - It means that: "That which, of this or that being, in this and that group, is decay, drecrepitute, breaking up, hoariness, wrinkling of skin, shrinkage of a life - span, over - ripeness of faculties: this is called old - age. That which of this or that being from this or that group, is falling or decease, separation, disappearance, mortality or dying, accomplishment of time: separation of component factors, layingdown of the carcase: this is called death. Thus, it is this decay and this dying that is called old - age and death". (53)

("Katamanca, bhikkhave, jaràmaranam // Yà tesam tesam sattànam tamhi tamhi sattanikàye jarà jìranatà khandiccam pàliccam valittaccatà àyuno samhàni indriyànam paripàko // ayam vuccati jarà // Yam tesam sattànam tesam tamhà tamhà sattanikàyà cuticavanatà bhedo antaradhànam maccumaranam kàlakiriyà khandhànam bhedo kalebarassa nikkhepo // idam vuccati maranam // Iti ayanca jarà idanca maranam // Idam vuccati, bhikkhave, jaràmaranam //".) (54)

Old - age - and - death itself is suffering to men. It is the image of destruction of conditioned things which is contrary to men's desire for survival. Thus, it seems so terrible to everybody.

Above are meanings of the twelve elements of Dependent Origination explained by Lord Buddha. The operation of those elements will make up what is called the whole existence of a man that the writer is going to examine.

II.1.3. THE OPERATION OF THE TWELVE ELEMENTS OF DEPENDENT ORIGINATION.

Under the Bodhi - tree, Lord Buddha thought:

* Without birth, suffering cannot come into existence;
* Without becoming, birth cannot come into existence;
* Without grasping, becoming cannot be present;
* Without craving, grasping cannot be present;
* Without feeling, craving cannot be present;
* Without contact, feeling cannot be present;
* Without sixfold sense sphere, contact cannot be present;
* Without name - and - form, sixfold sense sphere cannot be present;
* Without consciousness, Name - and - form cannot be present;
* Without activities, consciousness cannot be present;
* Without ignorance, activities cannot be present;

So, Ignorance is the source of life stream of suffering. But it is conditioned, not the first cause of life as Lord Buddha said:

"Monks, the extreme point of ignorance is not apparent, so that one may say: "ignorance was not before; it has since come to be". And this statement, monks, is made. Nevertheless, this thing is apparent: ignorance is conditioned by this or that". (55)

("Purimà, bhikkhave, koti na pannayati avijjàya "ito pubbe avijjà nàhosi, atha pacchà sambhavì ti, evan c'etam, bhikkhave vuccati. Atha ca pana pannàyati "idappaccayà avijjà'ti".) (56)

Ignoring that everything is conditioned is ignorance. Supposing that everything has its own self which ispermanent is ignorance. From this ignorance, a man comes to attach to that imaginary self, and again produces ignorance and nurtures it. From this wrong view and thought, he comes to look for the truth of his self, and the first cause of the world. His self - thought makes arise his craving, ill - will and illusion which are the motives of his mental, bodily, and oral activities. This causes him so much trouble.

When his self-thought operates, consciousness must be present and operates; this operation requires the presence of the subject of cognition (meaning consciousness), the object of cognition (meaning name - and - form, or sixfold sense sphere, or the outer world) and the meeting of that subject and object (meaning Touch) is present. At that moment, feeling immediately appears. So, all the elements: ignorance, activities, consciousness, name - and - form, six fold sense sphere, touch and feeling co - exist in any process of mental operation.

Feeling includes mental reaction which is craving or ill - will or illusion, or two of these three things. Craving itself implies grasping (or attachment to things). They are boundless, and manifest under endless forms. This requires the existence of the worlds or tibhava. In short, when a man' self - thought operates, twelve elements of the Dependent Origination all are present. These elements are selfless and impermanent, so they lead the man to unsatisfied feeling.

Therefore, a man is nothing but the operation of those twelve elements leading to suffering, if his mind isdominated by self - thought. In the case of non - self thought, or the realization of Dependent Origination, operates in his mind, this operation will lead to the destruction of those twelve elements, or the destruction of suffering. Then the man appears as the one of non - self regard to things, and of happiness in the here - and -now. He actually proves that the long cherished dream of him and of education comes true.

It is, in reality, self - thought or non - self - thought of men which creates all values of things, gives estimate to them, and opens the course of human beings' culture. The current culture, in general view, has been made up and controlled by self - thought (or avijjà) which has produced a multitude of points of view on life, on universe and human values, and also individual, social crises. The solutions to these crises may be found in the operation of non - self thought coming from the wisdom regard of Dependent Origination which will be mentioned in next part of this work (II.2.).

REFERENCES:

(1) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II., PTS, London, 1990, pp 1-2.
(2) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1989, pp 1-2.
(3) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 21.
(4) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 25
(5) : Kindred Sayings, vol. II,..., p. 22.
(6) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 26
(7) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1992, p. 103.
(8) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1975, p. 120.
(9) : Middle Length Sayings, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1987, pp. 236-237.
(11) : "The Great Discourse on Origination", Long Discourses, tr. by Maurice Walshe, Wisdom Publications, London, 1987, p. 50.
(12) : "Mahànidàna Suttanta", Digha-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1982, pp. 56-57
(13) : "Great Discourse on Subline Story",..., p. 211.
(14) : "Mahàpadàna-Sutta", Dìgha-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1982, pp. 32-33.
(15) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1990, p. 50.
(16) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1989, p. 72.
(17) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., pp. 26-27.
(18) : Samyutta-Nikaya, Vol. II,..., pp. 31-32.
(19) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. Ii,..., p. 4.
(20) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(21) : "Discourse on Right View", Middle Length Sayings, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1987, p. 70.
(22) : "Sammàditthisuttam Navamam", Majjhima Nikàya, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1987, p. 55.
(23) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(24) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(25) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1992, p.53.
(26) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1975, p. 60.
(27) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1987, p. 46.
(28) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1989, p. 66.
(29) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(30) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,... p. 4.
(31) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III,... p. 74.
(32) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. III,... p. 87.
(33) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(34) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,... p. 3-4.
(35) : "Great Discourse on Origination", Long Discourses, tr. by Maurice Walshe,..., p. 226
(36) : "Mahànidàna-Sutta", Dìgha-Nikàya, Vol. II, PTS, London, 1982, pp.62-63.
(37) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(38) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,... p. 3.
(39) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(40) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 3.
(41) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(42) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,... p. 3.
(43) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(44) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,... p. 3.
(45) : "Discourse on Right View", Middle Length Sayings, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1987, p. 60
(46) : "Sammàditthi-Sutta", Majjhima Nikàya, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1976, pp. 48-49.
(47) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 4.
(48) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,... p. 3.
(49) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 3.
(50) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 3.
(51) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 3.
(52) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. II,..., p. 3.
(53) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. II,..., p. 3.
(54) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol., II,..., pp. 2-3.
(55) : Gradual Sayings, Vol. V, PTS, London, 1986, p. 78.
(56) : Anguttara-Nikàya, Vol. V, PTS, London, 1958, p. 113

 

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II.2 Chapter 2

In the Light of Dependent Origination

-ooOoo-

The problems often discussed in a culture are the outlook on life and universe, individual questions, environment and values. These problems play their role in determining the course of development of culture. They are going to be reviewed in this chapter in the light of Dependent Origination.

II.2.1: THE OUTLOOK ON LIFE AND UNIVERSE

Examining the origin or nature of life and universe is the main task of the sphere of metaphysics. This problem has a very important position in philosophy. It was examined from the dawn of Egyptian, Indian and Chinese thought. This is the searching for the essence of existing things relating to the problem of eternity and non - eternity, self and non - self, reality and annihilation, creator and creations, etc.

Lord Buddha Gotama, who Himself realized the Noble Truth, considered all metaphysical questions empty. He often kept silent and gave no answers to such metaphysical questions, because for Him, those questions do not realistically relate to the purpose a monk should aim at - that is the final freedom. This experimental attitude of His mind is mentioned in many discourses of the Pancanikàya. However, on the author’s way to study universe and human beings, some philosophical problems relating to spirituality and materiality are necessary tobe discussed.

When a man is examining universe, he is with it in the here - and- now. How can he know what the universe really is when he cannot understand who he really is? So, the practical thing for him is turning back to himself and seeing where and who he is so that he can come to the destruction of all hindrances to the truth of things. In doing this, he is to follow a practical method of phenomenology, and experimental method of mind by Lord Buddha.

For materiality, Lord Buddha declared that the material world is formed by the Four Great Elements as many Indian thinkers before Him did: they are Earth element, Water element, Fire element and Air element. These elements are dynamic and impermanent, so all existing things compounded by them must be impermanent. The question about the originof them is unacceptable to the truth of Dependent Origination as discovered by Lord Buddha; it becomes senseless.

According to Dependent Origination, this pheno menal world is conditioned, selfless and empty; human beings are but the compound of the five aggregates (pancakkhandha) which are selfless and empty; both the world and men co - exist, but cannot separate from each other. This truth was proved again by Lord Buddha’s teaching recorded in the discourse of Mahàpunnama (Majjhimanikàya,Vol.III) and of Dhàtuvibhanga (Majjhimanikàya, Vol. III): Form aggregate among the five aggregates compounding a manincludes an inside part which is his physical body, and an outside part which is the physical world; this means the universe itself is a part of a man’s body.

Since men’s thought is limited by self - thought and by the limit of men’s sense organs, it cannot set its feet on the true world of things, so people may ask: does this universe exist as what human beings perceive? or, does it exist independently from what human beings perceive?

In response to the above questions, the realists claim the universe appears exactly as what human beings perceive; the Western idealists supposed men can know only the world perceived by their sense organs, but can never know the world itself, as Platon did; Immanuel Kant is a rationalist but he accepted that idealist point of view. Although there are various regards to things, Western philosophers and educators believe that there is an objective world independent from human beings that can never be known. This means to the author the root difference between Lord Buddha’s teaching and other schools of thought, and gives him a hope to find solutions for the crises caused by the self - thought way.

Once, in the discourse of Pàtigamiya (Khuddakanikàya), Lord Buddha Gotama mentioned the unconditioned world (asankhàra) as the world existing out of the sphere of going and coming, birth and death etc., and declared that is the world of the destruction of suffering, or of attachment to things. This proves that the world people see and know is that of attachment or of inversions (mental, perceptual, emotional inversion andinversion of view) which is derived from ignorance (avijjà).

The true world is therefore this phenomenal world without men’s attachment to things. Lord Buddha affirmed:

" And, I, Bhaggava, who teach this and declare this, am wrongly, vainly, lyingly, and falsely accused by some ascetics and Brahmins who say: The ascetic Gotama is on wrong track, and so are His monks. He has declared that whoever has attained to the stage of deliverance called "the Beautiful" finds everything repulsive". But I do not say this. What I say is that whenever anyone has attained to the stage of deliverance called the Beautiful he finds that it is beautiful". (1)

("Evam - vàdim kho mam Bhaggava evam akkhàyim eke Samana- Bràhmanà asatà tucchà musà abhutena abbhàcikkhanti: Viparito Samano Gotamo, bhikkhavo, ca. Samano Gotamo evam àha: -Yasmim samaye subham vimokham upasampajja viharati, sabbam tasmim samaye asubhan t’eva sanjànàtiìti". Na kho panàham Bhaggava evam vadàmi: "Yasmim samaye subbam vimokham upasampajja viharati, sabbam tasmim samaye asubhan t’eva sanjànàtiìti. Evanca kho aham Bhaggava vadàmi: Yasmim samaye subbham vimokham upasampajja viharati, subhan t’eva tasmim samaye sanjànàtiìti".) (2)

The above teaching also reveals Lord Buddha’seducational point of view which is: educating men means helping them culivate their mind for the deliverance from all troubles and defilements. When their mind is pure, they will immediately see the purity of the world (or the true world): Happiness and truth appear at the same time to them. It is not training them according to any theory of personality, or any pattern of education. It is not either the searching for the origin of life or universe.

Then another question may be asked: spirituality comes after materiality, or materiality comes after spirituality? - This is a problem of philosophy.

As mentioned before, man’s thinking operates on the basis of self - concept. Without self - concept, it cannot function. It is self - concept which makes up the concept of order of things, then the concept of "before", "after" or "the first cause". Reality itself has nothing to do with that self - concept. It always says that materiality or spirituality is conditioned as the doctrine of Dependent Origination does. If form aggregate cannot separate from other aggregates, materiality cannot either separate from spirituality: both co - exist. However, because of the emphasis of cultivating man’s mind, Lord Buddha declared:

" All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him, as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage". (3) Dhp.1.

(" Manopubbangamà dhammà manosetthà manomayà

Manasà ce padutthena bhàsati và karoti và

Tato nam dukkhamanveti cakkam va vahato padam".) (4)

-" All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with a pure thought, happiness follows him like shadow that never leaves him".(5) Dhp.2.

(" Manopubbangamà dhammà manosetthà manomayà

Manasà ce pasannena bhàsati và karoti và

Tato nam sukhamanveti chàyà va anapàyini".) (6)

Men should be sure that thought (or mind) mentioned in the above teachings is conditioned, even the Tibhava, or three Worlds, they are conditioned; and all conditioned things, as materiality and spirituality, are selfless and therefore empty. Only problem of suffering of man and its cessation, but not speculations, was considered seriously by Lord Buddha on His way of teaching.

Knowledge is another important matter to be reviewed. It relates to existing things and is so close to a man that he considers it something of his self. What is it? A knowledge of the outer world is but a synthesis of the sources of information given by sense - organs. But sense - organs are not believable information givers. For example, when a man puts his left hand in a basin of cold water, his right hand in a basin of pretty hot water; then right after that he puts both hands in a basin of warm water; his hands do not give him the same feeling. This is an error. It is the same for other sense organs. The above synthesis is done by the man’s thinking based on self -thought, so it is something of ignorance. Therefore, knowledge must not belong to the true self of the man, or to the true world. In the light of Dependent Origination, it leads men just to suffering; it really is not what human beings are expecting.

A system of education, which as almost all systems of education of today world only offers men knowledges, will not bring happiness to them. It should be adjusted as early as possible.

In addition to the above clarification, the doctrine of Dependent Origination, to the author’s knowledge, can suggest new regards to the problems of individuals, society and environment that will be studied next.

II.2.2. DEPENDENT ORIGINATION AND INDIVIDUAL PROBLEMS

The big problems of a modern society with which leaders, educators and thinkers are concerned are individuals, individuals and society, history and environment, because these things have a very close relationship to individual happiness and survival; they seem to exist as a part of human existence, therefore they deserve to be observed under the light of truth- Dependent Origination.

Individuals and happiness:

It is very evident that everybody is born to be happybut not suffering, to serve his practical purpose of happiness but not any other purpose that does not relate intimately to it. It is also very evident that one is searching for truth of life because of his peace of mind in the here and now. So, the main object of education and culture must be individuals, and the root aim of education and culture must be happiness of individuals.

From the very old days, human beings gathered together in groups called tribes for their survival for the improvement of their life, and for the coping suitably with weather, environmental conditions and nature. It is these things which made up what is called society, culture and civilization. Since life stream was flowing from change to change, human beings’ efforts to build up their happiness and society must have changed from generation to generation accordingly. Then individuals came to work for two inseparable purposes: one for individuals, one for their group or society. When these two purposes did not work, individual problems arose and needed solutions. However, people’s regards to individuals, society and happiness are different from each other. This made the problems become more and more complicated, and the searching for solutions became the reason for religions and schools of thought to come into existence and to be developed. Let us follow the typical regards to them from great spheres of culture all over the world.

P.T. Raju, in the work titled "The concept of Man" edited by him and S.Radhakrishnan, gave the following comments:

For Greek thoughts :

"The pre - sophist philosophies did not say much about man’s relation to society... The sophists were more individualistic, being mainly devoted to training leaders of men who would influence society and use it as means to their own ends... Each man was the measure of things for himself, not only of things cognized but also of good and evil in society. But Plato and Socrates were opposed to this radical individualism and relativism of the sophists. Man, the measure of things, is not to be the particular man, but the universal man. The structure of society and the structure of man’s soul reflect each other, and are interdependent. The essence of man is rearon and is found in a rationally ordered society. The modern idea that the individual cannot be studied apart from society and that the personality of man is formed by society and grows in society, is not strong in Greek thought...

Socrates and Platon showed that society is a projection of human nature on a vast canvas or is a much enlarged reflection, of human nature. Man cannot live without society and can have full life only within it.

...Aristotle, a rationalist accepted main principles of Platon. Man cannot be man without society.. (7)

For Chinese thoughts:

"In Chinese thought, man’s concern for man is thestrongest and is considered to be self - sufficient... and how to have the best kind of state and society in which man can be virtuous is an ever - recurring question in the history of Chinese philosophy.

" Study human relationships in order to organize the state well is Confucian advice... When Mencius says that the universe, which is the universe of human relationships, is to be found within mind, he meant that this universe can be found within man and is not to be derived from any reality outside man. Hsun Tzu different from Mencius and said that man is essentially selfish and evil and therefore needs education and culture in order to become good...

... Man is essentially a social creature and can live a virtuous life only in a society of men, whether God exists or not. (8)

For Indian thoughts, they seem to be the most interesting of the world as mentioned in (I.2.)

For Marxist thought, P.T. Raju estimated:

" Marxist philosophy proceeds from the thesis that the individual is a social creature... Marx and Engels considered that the individual and the social life of a person are not different things, even though they have different forms of expression... "Man can settle only in society", Marx wrote, "Only in society can his individuality be revealed in accordance with the social conditions". (9)

In the author’s opinion, Greek thoughts belong to dualism supposing that every existing has its own nature, regardless of the point of view considering individual and society interdependent or not. So, they must belong to the operation of ignorance (avijja) which actually leads to suffering.

Chinese thoughts emphasize individuals as virtuous men living in the order of a society well - organized. They are but the production of self - thought, not of reality itself. These thoughts must bring troubles to individuals as people could see in the history of China: many tragical contradictions among human relationships happened.

Generally, to human beings’ point of views, Lord Buddha Gotama gave the following estimate:

" When those ascetics and Brahmins who are speculators about the past (the future and present), having fixed views about the past (the future and present), put forward views in sixty two different ways, that is merely the feeling of those who do not know and see, the worry and vascillation of those immersed in craving". (10)

("Tatra, bhikkhave, ye te samanabràhmanà pubbantakappikà ca pubbantakappikà ca aparanta kappikà ca pubbantàparantà- parantànuditthino pubbantàparantam àrabbha aneka - vihitam adhivutti padàni abhivadanti dvà - satthiyà vatthùhi, tad api tesam bhavatam samana bràhmànanàm ajànatam apassatam vedayitam tanhà - gatànamparitasitavipphanditam eva".) (11)

With His perfection of wisdom, Lord Buddha did know and see the truth of this Universe, then explained the formation of this earth and human beings’ society that may be summarized as below: (12)

- At the time of the contraction of this world, beings were mostly born in the Àbhassara Brahmà world. There they dwell, mind - made, feeding on delight, self - luminous, moving through the air, glorious...

- At the time of the expansion of this world, the beings having passed away from Àbhassara Brahmà world were mostly reborn in this world. Here they dwell, mind - made, feeding on delight, self - luminous, moving through the air, glorious...

- At that period expansion, there was just one mass of water; all was darkness...; night and day were not distinguished, beings being reckoned just as beings, no male and female were discriminated...

- Then earth appeared as a skin that forms over water with the colour of fine ghee or butter and was very sweet like wild honey.

- Then some beings of greedy nature tasted earth, attached the flavour; craving began to arise in them. They became more greedy, and earth became stuffy; they became coarser and coarser.

- Among those beings, those with less greedy nature became more good - looking, others became ugly. The good - looking dispised the ugly; this made the good flavourof earth disappear. Then, a fungus cropped up, in the manner of a mushroom with good colour, smell and taste.

- Then, beings’ craving increased more and more, earth became worse and worse, and beings became coarser and coarser.

- The rice appeared in open spaces, free from powder and from husks, fragrant and clean - grained. What beings had taken in the evening for supper had grown again and was ripe in the morning, and what they had taken in the morning for breakfast was ripe again by evening. At this time, beings became coarser; females developed female sex - organs, and males developed male - organs; passion was aroused and their bodies burnt with lust; then sexual intercourse appeared.

- At first times, beings cursed and swore at those who were making love, and threw dust and ashes at them; and did not allow them to live with others in villages, towns two months.

- Beings became more and more lazy and wanted to gather rice as much as possible and keep rice in their own places for personal use..., then rice fields appeared... sexual life was openly acceptable. Beings started building houses to cover sexual activities.

- Then some beings stole rice of others: stealing and lying appeared.

- Then beings chose the best looking man and asked him to be the one as a lawyer or a referee to try the cases of stealing rice. This person received a share of rice from them; he did not have to work for rice. Thiswas the start of the social class of Khattiya.

- Some beings kept away from a sexual life, lived in separate places in leaf - huts in forest, and practised meditation. They were called Brahmins. Some of them could not meditate in lonely places and turned to towns or villages to compile books; they were also considered as Brahmins.

- Other beings adopted various trades and were called Vessas. Those who went to forests for hunting were named Suddas.

So, right after this Earth was formed, the first beings from Àbhassara heaven appeared without need for food. Then the sweet taste of earth and rice attracted them and made desire for things arise and grow up in them. After that, sex organs appeared together with desire for sexuality. When their desire grew up, social needs existed requiring social organization: human society was formed then, and social classes came into existence according to beings’ conduct: society was for the response to the individuals’ requirements only. This is the first and last role of society. This is the reason why Lord Buddha concerned only about suffering of individuals in this life, and their deeds for their happiness. He therefore taught:

" One does not become an outcast by birth, one does not become a brahmin by birth. It is by deed that one becomes an outcast, it is by deed that one becomes a brahmin. (13)

("Na jaccà vasalo hoti, na jaccà hoti bràhmano, Kammanà vasalo hoti, kammuna hoti bràhmano".) (14)

Society should do nothing but help individuals resolve their problems by their own deeds. Culture and tradition which are belongings of a society should do the same thing. This is the most traditional meaning of the role of society, culture or tradition. And the most original or traditional meaning of individuals’ purpose of life may be, at least as it happened in the beginning of this world, a peaceful mind of self - delight.

The world of today appears as a whole society very great with so many problems to be resolved relating to languages, political systems, customs, ways of life, religions, beliefs, race, sex, ..., and environment. All these things which put a lot of strong influences on men are existing as a very rough ocean sinking a boat of individuals. In those conditions of life, individuals feel so strange to themselves that they are surprisingly asking about their origin while they actually are there, and the truth of life is there. Because of this, Lord Buddha, who did know and see the past and future of this universe, declared:

" Do not say that, Ànanda, do not say that! This dependent origination is profound and appears profound. It is through not understanding, not penetrating this doctrine that this generation has become like a tangled ball of string, covered as with a blight, tangled like coarse grass, unable to pass beyond states of woe, the ill destiny, ruin and the round of birth-and-death". (15)

("Mà h’evam, Ànanda, avaca, mà h’evam avaca. Gambhìro c’ayam, Ànanda, paticca samuppàdogambhìràvabhàso ca. Etassa, Ànanda, dhammassa ananubodhà appativedhà evam ayam pajà tantàkulaka - jàtà gulàgunthika - jàtà munjababbaja - bhuùtà apàyam duggatim vinipàtam samsàram nàtivattati".) (16)

Indeed, when this culture cannot help individuals be themselves and cannot bring them happiness, human beings will not have any choice other than accepting the fateful suffering as they are, if its course of operation is not changed. A phenomenon, as the evident result of the current culture, happening is the grave pollution of environment which may cause disaster on Earth. There must be something wrong in men’s course of thought and action that needs to be adjusted for the protection of environment from pollution. This is the subject of hot discussion of our time that the author is going to mention in (II.2.3.). In his opinion, without understanding the close relationship between man and nature, people cannot understand what a man really is; without protecting environment from pollution as protecting men’s life from suffering, human beings will come to their ruin.

II.2.3. INDIVIDUALS AND ENVIRONMENT

What is environment? What is pollution of environment? Let us start examining it now.

Environment is a new term of nature. A new study branch on environment of the modern time is called ecology.

Some concepts of ecology:

Ecology is relatively a new science dealing withvarious principles which govern the relationships between organisms and their environment. American ecologist Frederick Clements (1916) considered ecology to be "the science of the community"; British ecologist Charles Elton (1927) defined ecology as "scientific natural history" concerned with the "sociology and economics of animals"; Woodbury (1954) treated ecology as "a science which investigates organisms in relation to their environment, and a philosophy in which the world of life is interpreted in terms of natural processes". Krebs (1972) defined it as "the scientific approach to the study of environmental interactions which control the welfare of living things, regulating their distribution, abundance, reproduction and evolution".

P.D. Sharma (F.N.I.E.) (Department of Botany, Univ. of Delhi) wrote in his book titled "Ecology and Environment" that:

" These days ecology has been contributing very much to socio- economic, political and other similar policies of the world. It is so common to find references of ecology in socio - economic writings, magazines, weekly and daily newspapers... Ecology indeed plays an important role in human welfare. This is primarily a field subject and modern ecology which is concerned with the functional interdependencies between living things and their environment". (17)

P.D. Sharma introduced many basic concepts of ecology, in this part the author only quotes sometypical ones:

*"All living organisms and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each other in various ways. Animal population, flora, and vegetation are interdependent through the environment and are mutually reactive". (18)

*"Environment, which is actually a complex of several inter-related factors and is much dynamic (i.e. varying with time and space), works as a sieve selecting organisms for growth from so many forms, as its one or the other factor becomes critical at critical stages of the life cycle of the species". (19)

And:

*"It is not only environment which influences the life of organisms, but organisms too modify their environment as a result of their growth, dispersal, reproduction, death, decay etc. Thus, the environment is caused to change due to organisms’ activities. The dynamic environment and organisms make ways for the development of different kinds of organisms through a process known as succession. The process continues till the development of a community which is now able to keep itself adjusted in equilibrium with the environment. This final stage of community is called climax". (20)

The above three quotations prove that there is a live relationship between men and environment which iscontinuous, inseparabable and natural. This very close relationship says that violating environment means violating individuals’ life as people could see from the current environmental crisis.

Environmental crisis:

The current environmental crisis is enviromental pollutions: air, water, earth pollutions. These pollutions as recorded in books, magazines, etc., are caused by atomic tests, chemical arms tests, by poisonous gas emitted from engineering factories, and by the fast increase of world population, etc.

The term pollution is defined by the Environmental Pollution Panel of the President’s Science Advisory Committee in its report: "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment", held in November, 1965, as follows:

"Enviromental pollution is the unfavorable alteration of our surroundings, wholly or largely as a by - product of man’s actions, through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution and abundances of organisms. These changes may affect man directly, or through his supplies of water and of agricultural and other biological products, his physical objects or possessions, or his opportunities for recreation and appreciation of nature". (21)

For air pollution produced in a year by human sources in the U.S.A., Edward J. Kormondy recorded (21 b)

HUMAN SOURCES	EMISSIONS
	(millions of tons per year)
* Natural dusts	63
* Forest fires	56.3
* Transportation	1.2
* Incineration	0.931
* Other minor sources	1.284
* TOTAL	122.715

Mentioning the problem of "Nuclear energy - Salvation or Damnation?", E.F. Schumacher, in his book titled "Small is Beautiful" wrote:

" Of all the changes introduced by man into the household of nature, large - scale nuclear fission is undoubtedly the most dangerous and profound. As a result, ionising radiation has become the most serious agent of pollution of the environment and the greatest threat to man’s survival on earth. The attention of the layman, not surprisingly, has been captured by the atom bomb, although there is at least a chance that it may never be used again. The danger to humanity created by the so called peaceful uses of atomic energy may be much greater". (22)

For water and earth pollution, E.F. Schumacher added:

"No international agreement has yet been reached on waste disposal. The conference of the International Atomic Energy Organization at Monaca, in November, 1959, ended in disagreement, mainly on account of the violent objections raised by the majority of countries against the American and British practice of disposal into the ocean. "High level" wastes continue to be dumped into the sea, while quantities of so - called "intermediate" and "low level" wastes are discharged into rivers or directly into the ground. An AEC report observes laconically that the liquid wastes work their way slowly into ground, water, leaving all or part (sic !) of their radioactivity held either chemically or physically in the soil". (23)

From the above quotations, it can be imagined how dangerous the current environmental pollution is, how threatened human beings life on earth is !

This pollution must be an evident result of the modern scientific civilization with its fast and uncontrolled development of industries and economics. This civilization, in its turn, is the result of a very high development of self- thought, way of thinking and enjoying pleasures of men. So, the main causes of the great environmental crisis which is being warned are ignorance (avijjà) and craving (tanhà) of men. Here, it may be asked whether Lord Buddha’s teaching on the truth of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppàda) can give a solution to it?

As mentioned before, the element of Name - and - Form (Nàma - Ruùpa) of the Dependent Origination is considered as the five aggregates of human beings which were defined by Lord Buddha Gotama as follows:

" And what, brethren, are the five factors? All body, brethren, be it past, future, or present, inward or outward, gross or subtle, low or lofty, far or near, that is called "the body factor".

Every feeling, every perception, all activities, ...,every consciousness, be it past, future or present, inward or outward, etc, that is called the "Consciousness factor". (24)

("Yam kinci, bhikkhave, ruùpam atìtànàgatapaccuppannam ajjhattam và bahiddhà và olàrikam và sukhumam và hìnam và paniìtam và yam dure santike và ayam vuccati ruùpakkhandho // Yà kàci vedanà // yà kàci sannà // pe // ...ayam vuccati vinnànakkhandho //".) (25)

Twenty six centuries ago Lord Buddha did give human beings a very interesting and extremely surprising definition: the body aggregate of a man includes his physical body and this whole physical world. This definition affirms that environment or nature really is the body, or a big part of the body, of a man; without it he cannot come into exsistence and survive. If nature or environment is gravely polluted, his physical body or life will immediately come to its ruin. So, if everybody understands the truth of Dependent Origination, or if allmeans of communication of men introduce this doctrine, he will voluntarily protect environment from pollution as he can, because this is the meaning of protection of his happiness and survival in this life.

It may be said that the science of ecology and the danger of the enviromental pollution are offering human beings a vision that there is no limit of the physical body of a man: it cannot be limited to the extent of his own body, of his country or of any continent: this is the real meaning of selflessness of his body. It is similar for his other aggregates. Does this truth say the Buddha’s doctrine of selflessness or Dependent Origination is the solution for the environmental crisis? - In the author’s opinion, Dependent Origination may be the solution for various problems of men. Let’s continue examining it.

II.2.4. INDIVIDUALS AND HUMAN VALUES

To men, living means living with knowledges and values of life. As people could understand, the role of education is imparting to men knowledges about spheres of learning, nature and human beings. These knowledges, their values and the value itself, in fact, are created by men’s thinking which has been discussed about in philosophy as well as in education. What is men’s thinking? What is the meaning of the current values of life? The answers to these questions are what the writer must reach in this part of his work. These are great philosophical problems.

Mentioning philosophy, P.T. Raju wrote:

" Philosophy, if it is true to itself, has to be aphilosophy of life, not of one part of life but of the whole. This life is the life of man. He wants a theory of life as a guide. Other creatures do not care for any such theory, the drives themselves of their nature are enough for them. The aim of philosophy to be a guide to life is tacitly recognized by thinkers like Russel, who, speaking of logical analysis, says at the end of his book, "A History of Western Philosophy", that it also is meant to suggest and inspire a way of life" (26)

Chandradhar Sharma supposed:

" The etymological of the word "philosophy" is "love of learning" (or love of knowledge). It signifies a natural and a necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which they "live and move and have their being" It is impossible for man to live without a philosophy...

Western philosophy has remained more or less true to the etymological meaning of "philosophy", in being essentially an intellectual quest for truth. Indian has been, however, intensely spritual and has always emphasized the need of practical realization of truth..." (27)

As the above expressions suggest, the author also thinks that the common meaning of philosophy to be concerned much about is serving human beings and their happiness in life, and that the western way of thinking is different from the Eastern way: the former emphasizes knowledges about life, the latter concerns about therealization of the truth of life. This difference will be clarified if we examine men’s way of thinking, in general, expressed by Aristotle, a Greek great philosopher, as the following:

For Aristotle, there are three basic principles for men’s thinking:

1. Principle of identity: A thing called (A) must always be (A). If it changes from moment to moment, men’s thinking cannot operate.

2. Principle of no-contradiction: A thing called (A) may be named (A) or(<>A), but not sometimes (A), sometimes ( <>A). If it is often changed, men’s thinking cannot work.

3. Principle of excluded middle: A thing may be called (A) now, and (B) at another time, but not (A +B) - half is A and half is B-.

If it is (A + B), men’s thinking can never function. (28)

Those principles presuppose that every existing thing has a fixed nature, while in life it changes from moment to moment. This is a big gap between men’s knowledges about life and life itself that can never be filled up.

It is the above way of thinking which puts value on all things. Having no root in reality, these values only make men confused in making any choice between conventional values and the real life, and only brings them tragedies.

Having seen this wrong view and thought, Lord Buddha taught the doctrine of Dependent Originationshowing that men’s thinking is Activities element (sankhàra), or Activities aggregate of the five aggregates of Name- and - Form element (Nàma - Rùpa), which is of the operation of Ignorance (avijja) leading to suffering. So the true values of things exist only in the operation of wisdom (vijjà or pannà) or men’s regard of wisdom.

It is the above thinking which forces men to search for the first cause of life and the nature of man (or personality) which never exist in life as well as the conventional values.

In the author’s opinion any search for personality or any search for the essence of things is but a utopia. This problem will be discussed much more in the next part.

REFERENCES:

(1) : "Discourse on Pàtika, Long Discourses, Translation by Maurice Walshe, Wisdom Publications, London, 1987, p.382.
(2) : "Pàtika-Sutta", Dìgha-Nikàya, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1992, p. 34.
(3) : Dhammapada, Verse No. 1, Tr. by F. Max Muller, Sacred Books of the East, Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, 1992, p. 3.
(4) : Dhammapada, Verse No. 1, Devanàgari, Ist Edition, 1977, Department of Buddhist Studes, Delhi University.
(5) : Dhammapada, Verse No. 2, Translation by F. Max Muller,..., 1992, p.4.
(6) : Dhammapada, Verse No. 2, Devanàgari,..., Delhi University.
(7) : "The Concept of Man", edited by Radhakrishnan, P.T. Raju, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1992, p. 334.
(8) : Ibid., p. 335.
(9) : Ibid., pp. 511-512.
(10) : "Discourse on Brahmajàla", Long Discourses, Tr. by Maurice Walshe, Wisdom Publications, London, 1987, p. 88.
(11) : "Brahmajàla-Sutta", Dìgha-Nikàya, Vol. I, PTS, London, 1975, p. 41.
(12) : "Discourse on Knowledge of Beginnings", Vol. I, PTS, London, 1975, p. 41.
(13) : "Discourse on Vasala", Suttanipàta, Minor Sayings, PTS, London, 1985, p. 14.
(14) : "Vasala Sutta", Suttanipàta, Khuddakanikàya, PTS, London, 1990, p. 24.
(15) : "Discourse on Dependent Origination", Long Discourses, tr. by Maurice Walshe,..., p. 223.
(16) : "Mahànidàna-Sutta", Dìgha-Nikàya,Vol. II, PTS, London, 1982, p.55.
(17) : P.D. Sharma, "Ecology and Environment", Rastogi Publications, 6th edition, 1992, p.2.
(18) : Ibid., p. 14.
(19) : Ibid., p. 14.
(20) : Ibid., p. 14.
(21) : Edward J. Kormondy, "Concept of Ecology", Prenticehall of India, Private Limited, New Delhi-110001, 1991, p. 246.
(21b) : Ibid., p. 268.
(22) : E.F. Schumacher, "Small is Beautiful", An Abacus book, Printed in England by Clays Ltd. St. Ires plc, 1993, p. 112.
(23) : Ibid., p. 113.
(24) : Kindred Sayings, Vol. III, PTS, London, 1992, p. 41.
(25) : Samyutta-Nikàya, Vol. III. PTS, London, 1975, p. 47.
(26) : P.T. Raju, "The Concept of Man",..., 1992, p.30.
(27) : Chandradhar Sharma, "A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy", Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Pvt., Ltd, Delhi, 1991, p. 13.
(28) : Spaulding, "The New Rationalism", New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1918, pp. 106-107.

 

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Contents| Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4 | Part 5 | Biography

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