There
was at one time a vast Buddhist literature in Pali, the Prakrits, mixed
Sanskrit and pure Sanskrit. It is, indeed, ironical that not a single
Buddhist work, with the exception of the Manju-srimulakalpa, has
been found within the borders of India. The main reasons for such a
complete disappearance of Buddhist literature from India are (i)
that its study was confined to the ordained monks and novices resident in
the monasteries, (ii) that the literature, which was mostly
religious, was preserved in manuscript in the libraries or the cells of
the monasteries and never kept in the houses of laymen, and (iii)
that with the decay or destruction of the monasteries, whether by the
passage of time or through desecration and vandalism, these manuscripts
were destroyed. The Buddhist Literature that we study today has come to
us from monasteries outside India, in Ceylon, Burma, Siam and Nepal, and
in translations from Tibet, China and Mongolia. An idea of the vastness
of the literature can be formed from the works mentioned in the Chinese
and Tibetan Catalogues. A remarkable addition to our knowledge of
Buddhist literature has been made by the discoveries of manuscripts in
Central Asia and Gilgit as well as by the manuscripts photographed in
Tibet by Rahul Sankrityayan and collected by Prof. G. Tucci. The original
Sanskrit manuscripts, found in Central ASIA, Gilgit and Tibet, belonging
mostly to the fifth or sixth century A.D. or to an earlier period, were
preserved in Central Asia and Gilgit in stone chambers built under the
stupas or monasteries, and in temples in Tibet where they were meant to be
worshipped only and not studied. These discoveries have thrown a flood of
light on the development of Buddhist literature and the languages in which
it was written, particularly on some extinct Central Asian dialects into
which some of the texts were translated.
Buddhist
literature may be divided broadly into two sections: the Hinayana (in Pali
and mixed Sanskrit) and the Mahayana (in mixed and pure Sanskrit). It can
be further sub-divided into literatures of different sects of both the
Hinayana and the Mahayana schools.
1. Biographies
The life
of the Buddha provided a fascinating subject for the ancient Buddhist
writers and compilers. There are five biographies of the Buddha : (i)
the Mahavastu of the Mahasanghikas (Lokottaravadins), (ii)
the Lalitavistara of the Sarvastivadins in mixed Sanskrit, (iii)
the Buddhacarita composed by Asvaghosa in pure Sanskrit in the
high-flown kavya style, (iv) the Nidanakatha in pure Pali
forming the introductory part of the Jakakas, and lastly (v)
the Abhiniskramanasutra of the Dharmaguptas probably written in
mixed Sanskrit but now extant only in a Chinese translation which has been
rendered into English by Beal under the title of The Romantic Legend of
Sakya Buddha (1875). Besides these, there are stray pieces in Pali
and Sanskrit Vinaya, as also in the Nikayas, depicting
certain periods or events in the Buddha’s life. The Mahapadana-sutta,
for example, deals with the life of the previous Buddhas, particularly
with that of Vipassi, who is almost a replica of Gautama Buddha; the
Ariya-pariyesana-sutta relates the events after the Bodhisattva’s
renunciation up to the delivery of his first discourse while the
Mahaparinibbana-sutta gives a vivid account of the Buddha’s last
journey, his cremation and the division of his earthly relics. Likewise
there are in the Suttanipata, the Apadana and the
Mahavamsa pieces dealing briefly with the Buddha’s life.
There is
a late poetical work in Pali called the Mahabodhivamsa, which
contains legends about the twenty-four Buddhas, during whose time Gautama
Buddha acquired the necessary virtues of a Bodhisattva.
A true
picture of the missionary activities of the Buddha, which spread over
forty-five years, is found in the introductory parts of the Jatakas
and the suttas of the five Nikayas as well as in the
Vinaya-pitaka.
Of the
five biographies of the Buddha, the most systematic is the
Lalitavistara. Its sonorous gathas are replete with bold
imagery and its descriptive accounts in prose and poetry, though
unrealistic, are calculated to produce faith and devotion for the Great
Being. Next comes the Mahavastu, which relates incidents of the
Buddha’s life according to the different traditions, with sudden breaks in
the continuity of the accounts. Its style is quaint and halting, and
shows clearly its pristine character. Its importance lies in the fact
that the stories of the past births of the Buddha are introduced in it to
support incidents in the present life of the Teacher. This was a common
practice among the ancient writers, and even the Nikayas and the
Vinaya are not free from such digressions, not to speak of the
Vinaya of the Mula-sarvastivadins. It is not easy to give an estimate
of the Abiniskramana-sutra as the original text has been lost.
From the abridged English translation of Beal, however, it can be stated
that this biography occupies a place nearer to the Lalitavistara
than to the Mahavastu. It opens in the style of the Mahavastu
and, like the latter, recounts the Jatakas towards the end to
underline the meritorious acts of the Buddha in his missionary days. The
compiler of the biography has attended to certain incidents, thereby
following the tradition of either the Mahasanghikas or of the Kasyapiyas
or of the Mahasthaviravadins. The Nidanakatha, in Pali, has an
individual approach. It devotes the whole of the “Distant Epoch” to a
detailed account of the twenty-four Buddhas, during whose time the
Bodhisattva was born in different forms and acquired the virtues necessary
for Buddhahood. In the “Intermediate” and “Proximate” Epochs, it relates
the incidents of the Buddha’s life without much embellishment. Like the
Mahavastu it occasionally mentions the Jatakas without
reproducing the stories at length. The Buddhacarita stands by
itself and has nothing in common with the biographies, except the
well-known incidents of the Buddha’s life with certain deviations. The
biography extends to the session of the first Council and follows the Pali
tradition generally. The Teacher is depicted as a human being, who
succeeded in achieving perfection on account of accumulated merit in a
past life.
(i) The Mahavastu
The
Mahavastu is an extensive work (covering 1,325 pages in print) written in
mixed Sanskrit. It claims to be the first book of the Vinaya-pitaka
of the Lokottaravada branch of the Mahasanghikas. The Mahasanghikas,
it may be observed, were the first batch of monks to secede from the
orthodox group, the Theravadins or Sthaviravadins. About a century after
the Buddha’s passing. They lived mostly at Vaisali and Pataliputra, and
migrated, in course of time, to Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in the Guntur
district of Andhra State.
Its
language and style of composition seem to suggest that the Mahavastu
must have been written as early as the 1st or 2nd
century B.C.
Most of
the Indologists who have studied this work are of the opinion that it
lacks in system and is, by and large, a confused mass of legends and
historical facts. This criticism is partially true : nonetheless the
scattered episodes in the treatise are not wholly unrelated. An attempt
will be made in the following pages to indicate the lines which the
compiler or the author followed to bring together the floating mass of
legends and traditions concerning Sakyamuni’s birth and previous births.
At the
outset the compiler gives an account of the hells and of the sufferings
witnessed there by Mahamaudgalyayana. Then he mentions the four Caryas
(courses of attainments) through which an individual must pass in order to
attain Buddhahood. The first Carya is called Prakrticarya,
in which an individual is expected to be obedient to his parents, to the
sramanahs and Brahmins, and to the elders, to perform good deeds,
to instruct others to offer gifts, and to worship the Buddhas. While a
being is in this Carya, he is just a common being and not a
Bodhisattva. Sakyamuni practiced this Carya from the time of
Aparajitadhvaja Buddha.
The
second Carya is called Pranidhi or Pranidhana. This
consists in a being’s resolving to attain bodhi in due course.
Sakyamuni took this resolution five times in the course of this many
existences as the ancient Sakyamuni Buddha, whose life extended over
aeons.
The
third Carya, called Anuloma (i.e., forward or
progressive) is continuation of the previous Carya and consists in
acquiring the virtues necessary to become a Buddha. Sakyamuni began this
Carya Caryas, a Bodhisattva acquires the virtues mentioned in the
Jatakas and advances from the first to the eighth bhumi.
Sakyamuni reached the seventh bhumi, when he was born as Prince
Kusa.
The
fourth or the last Carya is called Avivarta or Anivartana
(non-returning) and commences with the Bodhisattva reaching the eighth
bhumi when retrogression becomes impossible for him. When
Sakyamuni was reborn as Meghamanava,
he reached this Carya at the time of Dipankara Buddha, who
confirmed his ultimate success in attaining bodhi. It was
reconfirmed by Sarvabhibhu Buddha when Sakyamuni was born as Abhiya or
Abhiji bhiksu. Subsequently, the Bodhisattva was born innumerable
times
in order to cross the eighth and ninth bhumis. He ultimately
reached the tenth bhumi to be born as Jyotipalamanava and given
Yauvarajyabhiseka by Kasyapa Buddha, at last becoming the god of gods
in the Tusita heaven. He was to complete the tenth bhumi as
Gautama Buddha under the Bodhi tree at Gaya.
After
dealing with the bhumis, the compiler takes up the story of the
last existence of Dipankara as a Bodhisattva, which is almost a replica of
the story of Sakyamuni’s birth. After attaining bodhi he met
Meghamanava, a very learned Brahmin student, and told him that he would
become Gautama Buddha. A similar forecast was made by Buddha Mangala when
our Bodhisattva was born as Atula Nagaraja.
The
continuity of the biography is broken here, and all of a sudden an episode
of Gautama Buddha’s missionary life is introduced. This episode deals
with the disappearance of a pestilence ravaging Vaisali, the city of the
Vajjis and Licchavis, as soon as Gautama Buddha stepped into the city, to
the discomfiture of the heretical teachers, Purana Kasyapa and others, who
had failed to allay it. He recited the Ratanasutta, a Sanskritized
version of the sutta in Pali.
The
compiler concludes this part of his story by tracing the origin of the
Sakyas and Koliyas, to which clans the parents of Prince Siddhartha
belonged. The account goes back to the origin of the world and its first
inhabitants and the selection of Mahasammata as the first king, from whom
the Sakyas and Koliyas were descended.
The
whole of this part of the Mahavastu corresponds roughly to the
“Distant Epoch” of the Nidanakatha, with the difference that the
story of the Bodhisattva is carried back to his pre-Bodhisattva existences
when he was engaged in Pratkrticarya.
The
actual biography of Prince Siddhartha is to be found in the second volume
of the Mahavastu and corresponds to the “Intermediate Epoch” of the
Nidanakatha. It opens with an account of the following topics: the
Bodhisattva’s selection of time, place, continent and family, his birth at
Lumbinivana, Rsi Asita’s visit, the Bodhisattva’s trance at Krsigrama, the
display of skill, marriage, and Rahula’s appearance as a son of Yasodhara,
although he was self-born. The above is repeated in a slightly different
form, perhaps according to another tradition, and the two Avalokita-sutras
of the semi-Mahayana type are introduced, one of which relates the topics
in verse in a condensed form. This volume concludes with the
Bodhisattva’s approach to the Niranjana river and the defeat of Mara.
The
third volume of the Mahavastu corresponds to the “Proximate Epoch”
of the Nidanakatha. The first topic it deals with concerns the
conversion of Mahakasyapa with an incidental reference to the rule of
Trikabhojana, according to which not more than three monks could eat
together when invited. It is followed by a detailed account of the
conversions of Sariputra and Maudgalyayana, King Suddhodana,
Mahaprajapati, Yasodhara, Rahula and the Sakyan youths along with Upali.
After an intervening Bahaubuddha-sutra, the story of the Buddha’s visit to
Kapilavastu is resumed. The narrative then suddenly reverts to the seven
weeks passed by the Buddha after the attainment of bodhi. Next
comes an account of his first missionary career, which is followed up to
the conversion of the Buddha and King Bimbisara at Rajagrha.
(ii) The Nidanankatha
The only
biography of Gautama Buddha in Pali is the Nidanakatha, which forms
the introduction of the Jataka commentary. Its authorship is not
mentioned anywhere, although the author speaks of the three monks, viz.,
Atthadassi, a recluse, Buddhamitta of the Mahisasaka sect and Buddhadeva,
a monk of clear intellect, who inspired him to write the Jataka
commentary.
About
the division of the biography, the compiler of the Nidanakatha
states that the existence of the Bodhisattva from the time of Dipankara
Buddha up to his birth as a Tusita god are placed in the “Distant Epoch” (Dure
nidana), while the account of the Bodhisattva’s descent from the
Tusita heaven to his final emancipation at Bodh Gaya is treated as the
“Intermediate Epoch” (Avidure nidana). The early missionary career
of the Buddha up to the time of his meeting with Anathapindika and Visakha
at Savatthi is included in the “Proximate Epoch” (Santike nidana).
The “Distant Epoch” opens with the biography of Sumedha Brahmin. Sumedha
was born at Amaravati in a wealthy Brahmin family of pure lineage but lost
his parents at an early age. He learned the Brahmanic sciences. Being
dissatisfied with the wealth left by his parents, he gave it away in
charity and became an ascetic, seeking Amatamahanibbana which was free
from origin and decay, pleasure and pain, disease and suffering. He
realized that everything in this world had two aspects, positive and
negative, and therefore as an antidote to birth, there must be something,
which was unborn. He was determined to realize it and went to the
Himalayas to meditate. He took up his abode at the Dhammaka mountain and
lived only on the fruit that fell from the trees. He soon attained
perfection in the five higher powers (abhinna), and in meditation.
At this
time Buddha Dipankara reached the city of Rammaka in the border country
and stopped at Sudassana-mahavihara. Sumedha-tapasa found everyone busy
making the place neat and tidy to welcome the Buddha; so he also came
forward to take a share in it. He was charmed by the glory of the
Buddha’s appearance and wanted to lay down his life for him. Lest the
Buddha should soil his feet in the slush he lay flat on it like a bridge (mani-phalaka-setu)
in order that the Buddha and his disciples, who were all Arhats, might
tread over him. As he lay thus, he wished he could refrain from achieving
his own salvation and become a Buddha himself so that he might be able to
rescue endless numbers of beings from the stream of existence. Then
Dipankara prophesied that the great ascetic Jatila would become a Buddha
himself so that he might be able to rescue endless numbers of beings from
the stream of existence. Then Dipankara prophesied that the great ascetic
Jatila would become a Buddha after innumerable aeonst and related in
detail where he would be born, how he would attain bodhi and who
his chief disciples would be. The prophecy was confirmed by many
miraculous events, including an earthquake, and there was no doubt left
that Sumedha was a Buddha-bijankura, a seedling of the Buddha. He also
realized this fact and ascertained by his higher knowledge (abhinna)
that he must acquire the ten perfections (paramitas), which were
acquired by the previous Bodhisattvas in order to achieve Buddhahood.
Long
after Dipankara Buddha, Buddha Kondanna appeared at Rammavati-nagara. At
that time our Bodhisattva was reborn as Emperor Vijitavi and gave a large
gift to the Buddha and his Sangha. When the prophecy that he would become
a Buddha was reiterated by Buddha Kondanna he listened to his religious
discourses and became a recluse. He studied the three Pitakas, mastered
the eight forms of meditation (samapatti) and obtained the five
higher powers (abhinna). Then he passed away and was reborn in the
Brahmaloka.
In this
way the Nidanakatha relates the forms of existence of the
Bodhisattva for each of the next twenty-one Buddhas, the last three of
whom were Kakusandha, Konagamana and Kassapa. The Dure Nidana Section
ends with a list of the Jatakas, which depict the Bodhisattva’s perfection
in the ten paramitas.
The
“Intermediate Epoch” opens with the existence of the Bodhisattva as the
lord of the Tusita heaven. He was entreated by the gods to appear in the
mortal world to become a Buddha. He agreed and selected the time, place,
family, mother, and limit of life. The rest of the story from his descent
up to the attainment of bodhi follows the traditions preserved in
the Mahavastu and the Lalitavistara.
The
“Proximate Epoch” begins with the usual account of the seven weeks
immediately after the attainment of bodhi. Then follows the
acceptance of Tapussa and Bhallika as lay devotees and the gift of hair
relics to them for the erection of a stupa. There is a reference to the
Buddha’s hesitation in preaching the doctrines, followed by an account of
the Buddha’s visit to Banaras where he convinced the five Brahmin ascetics
in turn of the excellence of his teaching and delivered to them the
discourses called Dhammacakka and Anatta-lakkhana. He then converted Yasa
and his friends so that the number of his disciples rose to sixty. He
sent them in different directions to propagate his teachings and himself
went to Uruvela and converted the three Jatila Kassapas by his sermon on
Fire.
He was
invited by King Suddhodana to visit Kapilavastu, where he performed
miracles to convince the Sakyas of his greatness, and went round the city
with his disciples begging for food. The king and Yasodhara felt
aggrieved at the latter but could not stop him. As Yasodhara remained in
her apartments and would not come out to welcome him, the Teacher himself
went to her with his four disciples. She spoke of the sacrifices she had
made for the sake of her lord. This led to a reference to her former
existence as related in the Canda-Kinnara Jataka.
After
this appears the usual account of the ordination of Rahula and of the
crown prince Nanda on the eve of the latter’s coronation and marriage.
Next
comes the episode of the meeting between the Buddha and Anathapindika at
Rajagrha, the purchase of Jetavana and the construction on it of a
monastery. The biography ends with the Buddha at sravasti where the
merchant Anatapindika, like Visakha, gave away the monastery to the Sangha
of the four quarters, present and future.
II. The Buddha’s Teachings
(i) The Pali Sutta-pitaka
The
Buddha’s teachings are contained in the Sutta-pitaka, which consist
of five Nikayas, namely, the Digha, the Majjhima, the
Samyutta, the Anguttara and the Khuddaka. The
difference in the titles does not always correspond to the contents except
in the case of the Samyutta and the Anguttara. In the
Digha there are some long suttas, but most of them are short,
and some even shorter than the suttas of the Majjhima. It
contains two suttas, Sangiti and Dasuttara, which should have found
a place in the Anguttara. In the Mujjhima again there are
several suttas, which are longer than many in the Digha.
There are certain groups of suttas, such as the Rajavagga, the
Brahminavagga, and the Vibhangavagga, which would not have been out of
place in the Samyutta, although it must be admitted that the method
and style of the Majjhima and the Samyutta differ greatly.
In the Samyutta, the grouping of the suttas is made under a
common label without any reference to the topics. In the Anguttara
the title is justified, for the contents are arranged numerically and, at
times, the divisions and sub-divisions have been strained to maintain the
numerical classification. It even includes the Vinaya topics where
they could fit in with the numerical classification. The title
Khuddaka-nikaya is not at all justifiable if by khuddaka is
meant “small”. Perhaps, the intention was that all the suttas,
texts or commentaries, which could not be classified in any of the four
Nikayas, should be grouped together as a collection of supplementary
texts.
The
grouping of the suttas into Nikayas does not therefore rest
on a very rational basis. It may be that the division is due to the
Bhanaka system prevalent in the early days. Writing was unknown then, and
so the Buddha’s sayings, as collected by his disciples, were committed to
memory by a group of monks and were handed down to their disciples
orally. There were probably two such groups, who, in order to distinguish
themselves from each other, became known as Digha-Bhanakas and
Majjhima-bhanakas. The other two Nikayas were later developments,
their object being only to rearrange the topics dealt with in the Digha
and the Majjhima. As it is not within the scope of this article to
deal with all the Nikayas separately, a brief account of only the
Digha-nikaya is given.
(a) The
Digha-nikaya consists of three books containing thirty-four
suttas, of which about sixteen might be described as long. The first
suttanta, Brahmajala, has two parts, the first enumerating the
superstitious beliefs and popular games and entertainments, and the second
summing up the various doctrinal and philosophical speculations in vogue
at the time. The second suttanta, Samannaphala, also has two
parts, the first stating the doctrines of the six heretical teachers and
the second the benefits derived in as ascending order by a monk of the
Buddhist Sangha. The next three suttantas , Ambattha, Sonadanda,
and Kutadanta, for the most part, discuss the injustice of the Brahmanical
view that Brahmins were entitled to certain privileges by birth. The
superiority of the ideal of life envisaged by the Buddha is also brought
out in contrast. The sixth (Mahali), the seventh (Jaliya), the tenth
(Subha), and the twelfth (Lohicca) suttantas revert to the topics
of Samannaphala in a slightly different manner.
The
eleventh sutta (Kevatta) shows that the Buddha was superior to the
gods headed by Brahma inasmuch as he alone was able to answer to question,
which the gods were not. We find here Brahma leading the questioner away
and telling him that he could not, in the presence of other gods, say that
he did not know the answer to the question. He then referred the
questioner to the Buddha.
The
eighth (Kassapa-sihanada) suttanta speaks of the various ascetic
practices prevalent during the time of the Buddha, while the ninth
(Potthapada) introduces us to the type of discourses usually delivered to
the wanderers (paribbajakas). Both of these suttantas also
refer to the fruits, which the Buddhists acquired through holy practices.
The thirteenth (Tevijja) suttanta refutes the notion that the
Brahmaloka can be reached through the methods prescribed by the Vedic
seers and teaches how one can attain it through self-restraint and the
practice of the four Brahmaviharas, viz., love, compassion, joy at the
success of others, and equanimity.
The
second book of the Digha-nikaya contains suttantas, almost
all of which have a Maha prefixed to the title. The first Mahapadana,
deals with the lives of the seven Buddhas who came before Gautama Buddha
and described in detail the life of Vipassi, which is but a replica of
Sakyamuni’s life. The Mahanidana, as its name implies, gives an
exposition of the Law of Causation and discusses the various forms of
beings. By far the best suttanta of this nikaya is the
Mahaparinibbana,
which gives a realistic account of the last days of the Buddha’s life.
Particularly important are the names of the villages through which he
passed on his was to Kusinagara and the last instructions he gave for the
well being of the Sangaha. He stressed the observance of precepts,
meditation, knowledge and emancipation, and laid down four rules to
ascertain the authenticity of Buddha-vacanas. He also recommended to lay
devotees a visit to Kapilavastu, Gaya, Banaras and Kusinagara. His last
words were: Vayadhamma sankhara appamadena sampadetha (all
constituted things are subject to decay and so perform your duties
diligently). The suttanta ends with a vivid account of the
cremation of the Buddha’s body and the division of his relics.
The main
object of the next five suttantas (xvii-xxi) is to prove that,
owing to the fact that many inhabitants of Kasi-Kosala, Vajji-Malla,
Ceti-Vamsa, Kuru-Pancala, Maccha-Surasena and Anga-Magadha followed the
Buddha’s teachings, the number of entrants to heaven increased greatly.
Of the five suttantas, the Mahasudassana is an offshoot of the
Mahaparinibbana and gives an account of the past greatness of
Kusinagara. The Mahagovinda, a story of the past, is particularly
important in that it likens India to a cart, and divides it into seven
provinces, viz., Kalinga, Potana, Avanti, Sovira, Videha, Anga and
Kasi. This suttanta appears also in the Mahavastu. Like
the Tevijja-suttanta, it dilates on the merits of the practice of the four
Brahma-viharas.
The last
two suttantas of the volume are the Mahasatipatthana and the
Payasi. In the former the path of mindfulness is exhaustively explained.
It consists in keeping the mind (sati) alert (upatthana) to
what is happening to one’s body and feelings. It also exhorts one to
perform the duties and to acquire the virtues prescribed by the Buddha.
The other suttanta is named after a Khattiya teacher and
philosopher called payasi, who upheld the materialistic doctrine
that there was no rebirth after death, and that the acts of being, good or
bad, were not productive of any effects. This view was refuted by Kumara
Kassapa, a distinguished disciple of the Buddha.
The
third volume contains eleven suttantas, of which the first four
(xxiv-xxvii) deal mainly with non-Buddhistic views and ascetic practices.
This suttanta reiterates from the Brahmajala-suttanta, some of the
non-Buddhistic views about the beginning of the world. The next
suttanta, the Udumbarika-sihanagda, speaks of some of the evil effects
of rigorous ascetic practices while the Cakkavatti-sihanada admonishes the
Buddhists to be self-reliant and make the Dhamma their sole refuge.
Although the Buddha disapproved of any speculation regarding the origin
of the world, the Agganna-suttanta explains how the world began, and
denounces the Brahmins’s claim to superiority by birth.
The next
two suttantas, the Sampasadaniya and the Pasadika, contain the gist
of the Buddha’s teachings and moral instructions. The latter suttanta
was delivered when dissension occurred among the followers of Nigantha
Nataputta soon after his death, and contains (i) a reference to a
view of Uddaka Ramaputta, (ii) an expostion of the term
“sukhallikanuyoga” appearing in the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, and (iii)
a justification for leaving some questions unanswered as did the Teacher.
The
Lakkhana-suttanta discusses in detail the acts by which a person acquires
the thirty-two signs of great men.
The
Singalovada-suttanta is very important in view of the fact that it is the
only comprehensive discourse delivered by the Buddha for the benefit of
the lay devotes. It is regarded by some scholars as the source of
Ashoka’s Dhamma. The Atanatiya-suttanta is described as a magic spell for
the protection of lonely monks from evil-minded yaksas.
The last
two suttantas summarize the teachings of the Buddha as in the
Anguttara-nikaya. Of these, the Dasuttara, which is the last, follows
the catechetical method.
(b)
The Dhammapada
We may
add a few words here about the Dhammapada, which belongs to world
literature. It is equally popular in Buddhist and non-Buddhist countries,
as it contains ideas of universal appeal besides being a manual of
Buddhist teachings. It consists of 423 verses arranged according to
topics into 26 vaggas or chapters and is learnt by heart by young
monks in the Buddhist countries of South Asia. Its versified form makes
it easy to commit to memory.
Dhammapada
means religious world or saying and we find it used in this sense in
the book itself (44,45). The Buddhists say that the teachings of the
Buddha are briefly contained in this book, since it discusses the
essential principles of Buddhist philosophy and the Buddhist way of life.
This
little manual, like many other Buddhist works, condemns all kinds of
sacrifice and the ascetic practices of self-mortification, and its main
stress in on good conduct (Sila), stabilized by concentration (samadhi)
and strengthened by sound reasoning (panna). The teaching of the
Buddhas in a nutshell is : “Abstain from all evil ; accumulate what is
good and purify your mind.” (183). Which religion would not agree with
this. According to this teaching, all compound things are transitory,
full of suffering and, consequently, incapable of being called one’s own (anatta).
People are exhorted not to look to the external attraction of things, but
to take cognizance of their unpleasant aspects. It recognizes ignorance (avidya)
as being the highest form of impurity (243) and holds that the suffering
in this world can be brought to an end only by the destruction of craving
or hankering. Greed,, ill will and delusion are considered as dangerous
as fire, and unless they are held in check, it is not possible to attain a
happy life.
And to
achieve a happy state of life one must avoid the two extremes – indulgence
in a life of pleasure and the practices of self-mortification. One must
follow the Middle Path – the Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddhas which is
based on the Buddhist Trinity of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.
According to the Dhammapada, the attainment of the different stages
on the Buddhist path is to be preferred even to the possession of the
whole world (178). It enjoins all beings to develop those factors of
enlightenment which would enable them to cultivate the mind. It
emphasizes the principle that one makes or mars oneself, and that no one
else can help one to rid oneself of impurity. A man must exert himself.
Even the Buddhas are of little help because like signposts they can only
guide you (276). It recommends a life of peace and non-violence (129-30,
142), and declares that enmity can never be overcome by enmity but by
kindness (5). Its advice is to conquer anger by cool-headedness, evil by
good, miserliness by generosity, and falsehood by truth (223). It also
enjoins men not to speak harshly to others, as they in their turn are
likely to do the same (133).
This
little book is of considerable literary merit. It abounds in appropriate
similes which touch the heart. While recommending to a Buddhist monk a
spotless life and a life of non-interference in the politics of a town or
village it says : “It is better for a monk to eat a red hot iron ball than
to live a life of non-restraint.” (308). “the monk should go to a village
to take his food and go away without meddling in the affairs of the town,
just like a bee that goes to the flower, sucks the honey but does no harm
to the colour or smell of the flower.” (49). A man who reads much good
literature but never tries to bring it into practice is compared to a
cowherd who counts the number of cows that go to pasture under his care,
but has no proprietary right in any of them (19). When a young man in the
prime of life among his own people is snatched away by death, the author
uses the simile of a flood washing away the whole of the village that is
asleep (287). A man who becomes entangled in his own doings is compared
to a spider who finds itself enmeshed in its own web (347).
There
are, besides, many verses w3hich contain universal truths – truths for all
times and for all countries. For instance:
“It is
easier to do evil and harmful things than to do good and salutary things.”
(163).
“There
are only a few people in this world who have an insight: most of them are
blind.” (174).
“To be
born as human being is indeed a rare thing” (182).
“One
should never belittle evil things saying that they will never affect one.
A water
jar becomes, in course of time full by a constant dripping of water.”
(121, 122).
“It is
easy to see the faults of others but not so easy to see one’s own,” (252).
“The
smell of flowers goes only with the wind, but the fame (lit, smell) of
good men goes even against the wind.” (54).
“This is
a thing of old and not of the present day – that people blame one who is
silent, or one who talks too much, or even one who is moderate in his
speech. There is none in this world who is not blamed !” (227).
How
telling are these sayings !
It is on
account of such gems of literary merit and universal appeal that this
little book has been translated into a number of languages in Asia and
Europe.
(ii)
The Sanskrit Saddharma-pundarika
The
Saddharma-pundarika is one of the earliest texts of Mahayana
Buddhism. It is composed partly in prose and partly in verse. As is
usual with early Mahayana texts, the language of the prose portion is in
fairly good Sanskrit wile the verse is in mixed Sanskrit. In view of its
Buddhological conceptions and linguistic characteristics, the date of its
composition should be placed a little after that of the Mahavastu
and the Lalitavistara, that is, about the first century A.D. Its
earliest Chinese translations were made by Dharmaraksa in 286 A.D. and by
Kumarajiva in 383 A.D. Two centuries later (601 A.D.), Jnanagupta and
Dharmagupta also translated it. According to Nanjio, there were eight or
nine Chinese translations of this text, of which only the above mentioned
three are extant. It formed the main scripture of a few Chinese and
Japanese Buddhist sects, particularly the Tendai and the Nichiren sects of
Japan, and it is recited in all the temples of the Zen (Dhyana)
sect.
This
text represents the period of transition from Hinayana to Mahayana
Buddhism. A large part of the book is devoted to proving that Hinayana
Buddhism was preached by the Buddhas for the benefit of people of lower
intelligence and modest aims, to whom the whole truth was not divulged.
Hinayana Buddhists were advised to practice the thirty-seven Bodhipaksiya
dharmas, i.e., dharmas conducive to enlightenment, in order to rid
themselves of moral impurities (klesavarana), to comprehend the
Four Truths and the Law of Causation, and to realize pudgala-sunyata
or anatman (absence of soul or individuality) whereby t5hey could
reach a place of temporary rest (nirvana). This text then points out that
the Hinayanists, who had reached perfection in these attainments, were
advised to exert themselves further in their future existences in order to
acquire the merits and virtues prescribed for the Bodhisattvas for the
attainment of Buddhahood. They were required to realize dharma-sunyata
(non-existence of phenomenal objects) and dharma-samata (sameness
of all objects) whereby their Jneyavarana (the veil covering the
Truth) would be removed and they would become Samyak-sambuddhas.
The
question may be asked, why the Buddhas should preach two kinds of truth.
The text explains that the truth preached for the Hinayanists was only an
expedient (upayakausalya) resorted to by the Buddhas in order to
attract beings of lower intellect to their doctrines with the ultimate
object of leading them to the highest knowledge. It asserts that there is
only one yana (way) for complete emancipation and not three.
Sravakayana, Pratyekabuddhayana and Bodhisattvayana, the three paths, were
only expedients of the Buddhas to lead different types of beings to the
ultimate truth. That this was so is clear from the fact that several
well-known figures of the Hinayana school were assured that they would all
become Buddhas in the long run.
The
Saddharma-pundarika is divided into twenty-seven chapters. In the
first, the text is introduced as a Mahavaipulya-sutra, delivered by
previous Buddhas, and handed down to Dipankara by Varaprabhya Bodhisattva,
a previous incarnation of Manjusri. In the second chapter, the Buddha
points out that the highest truth can be realized by the Tathagatas only
within themselves and was not to be communicated to others. It is thus
beyond the reach not only of Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas but also of
Bodhisattvas of the highest bhumi (avaivartika). The Buddha admits
that for the sake of beings who believe in the existence of the world and
its sufferings, he imparted his teachings in nine angas (divisions)
and taught them how to attain nirvana. He initiated only the advanced
Bodhisattvas into the deeper teachings which lead to Buddhahood. in this
chapter, the Buddha refers to his hesitation in preaching his doctrines
and to the intervention of Brahma at which he changed his mind. In the
third and fourth chapters, there are two most interesting stories which
show that the compassionate Buddhas could not be partial to anybody and
that they were as solicitous of the welfare of the Sravakas as of that of
the Bodhisattvas. In the fifth chapter, the Buddha is compared to a cloud
and the sun, raining and shining over all without any discrimination. The
meaning of nirvana is then explained as the realization of the sameness of
all objects. The nirvana of the Sravakas is only a respite (visrama)
and is not the ultimate nirvrti (quietude).
Sakyasimha announces
that several Hinayana
Arhats and non-Arhats would become Buddhas in the long run, and then
declares that in one of his previous existences, he had received this
sutra from a hermit, who was reborn as Devadatta subsequently. He foresaw
that there would be persons who would speak ill of this sutra and thereby
commit grave sins. With a number of similes he exalts the sutra and
enjoins the faithful to erect stupas at the site where this sutra would be
delivered and to honour it with the same devotion they would bestow on a
caitya housing the Buddha’s relics.
In the
next two chapters, it is said that the length of life of the Buddhas is
unlimited and that this might not be believed by all, particularly by the
Hinayanists who hold that the Buddha attained bodhi at Gaya and
lived for forty years after his emancipation. The Buddha adverts that it
was he who created Dipankara Buddha and the other Buddhas and caused them
to deliver discourses on Arya-satyas and Pratitya-samutpada. Again, it
was he who made them attain parinirvana for the benefit of those
whose mental equipment was not of a high order, and likewise caused them
to deliver discourses on the paramitas and Tathagata Jnana
for the benefit of the Bodhisattvas who had higher aims.
The
remaining chapters are devoted mostly to the recounting of merit acquired
by a being for reciting, propagating and appreciating the sutra.
A
digression is made in Chapter XXIX, where Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva is
introduced and eulogized. It is said that anyone uttering the words,
Namo-namas tasmai abhayamdada avalokitesvaraya bodhisattvaya mahasattvaya,
would be saved from all calamities of shipwreck, fire, or moral
impurity, as this Bodhisattva would take the forms of the beings he is to
save and deliver them from all troubles.
The text
ends with the Buddha’s exhortation to all to preserve and propagate the
sutra. He says, “I bequeath unto you this Samyaka-sambodhi and entrust
you with the responsibility of propagating it far and wide, thereby
becoming the donors of Buddha knowledge.”
III. The Buddha’s Disciplinary Code
Vinaya-pitaka
All the
disciplinary rules framed for the conduct and guidance of the Buddhist
monks and nuns are collected in the Vinaya-pitaka. The Buddhist
order of monks was organized wholly on a democratic basis. The Buddha
nominated no successor and wanted his followers to perform all
ecclesiastical acts and duties according to his instructions. It was, of
course, not possible for the Buddha to lay down all the rules in
anticipation of what the unrighteous monks might do to evade or
misinterpret them. Hence, the Vinaya-pitaka, as it stands today,
is a growth of centuries out of the basic rules formulated by the Teacher
himself. In the Pali Canon, this Pitaka is divided into five parts
which are arranged in the following manner: (A) Khandhakas : (i)
Mahavagga, and (ii) Cullavagga ; (B) Suttavibhanga :
(iii) Parajika to Nissaggiya and (iv) Pacittiya to Sekhiya
and Bhikkhuni-vibhanga : and (C) (v) Parivara. This
arrangement holds good for a picture of the growth of the Buddhist Sangha
but does not indicate the chronological growth of the Pitaka. Both
from the contents and quaintness of the Palis language it can safely be
asserted that the Patimokkha-sutta was the earliest composition.
In the present edition the sutta does not appear separately but is
included in the Sutta-vibhanga, where it appears as the text for
purposes of comment. The Sutta-vibhanga was no doubt written at a
subsequent date and contains many additions like the case laws of a modern
law book. The Mahavagga traces the growth of the Sangha from its
inception and is thus rightly the first book of the Pitaka. Its
contents and style of composition, however, reveal a date later than that
of the Sutta-vibhanga. The Cullavagga contains many topics
which should form the closing part of the Pitaka. It describes in
detail the manner in which an ecclesiastical punishment is to be inflicted
and accepted by the guilty. It also contains some general rules regarding
the daily life of the monks, the proper place for which is in the
Mahavagga. It seems that the Cullavagga was either a much
later compilation than the Mahavagga or that it incorporated those
topics which, in part. Account of two Buddhist Synods, one of which was
held a century after the Buddha’s demise, are also included. The last
part, the Parivara, is a mnemonic manual for the use of the monks.
Its object is to help the monks not only to remember the rules but also to
be aware of the facts and circumstances which bring a monk within the
orbit of the rules.
(i)
The Patimokkha-sutta. – The Patimokkha (Skt. Pratimoksa-sutra)
forms the nucleus of the Viaya-pitaka. It is the oldest part of
the Pali Pitaka and its language appears to be older than that of
the Nikayas. Two complete Sanskrit versions of this text have been
discovered, one at Kuca, published by Louis Finot in Journal Aaiatique,
1913, and the other at Gilgit, published by A.C. Banerji in Indian
Historical Quarterly, 1953. besides these two, several fragments of
the text have been published by La Vallee Poussin and a fragmentary text
of the Bhiksuni-pratimoksa-sutra by E. Waldschmidt. In the
Jayaswal Research Institute there is a photographic copy of the
Pratimoksa-sutra of the Mahasanghikas. The greater antiquity of the
text is established by the references made to this text in the Nikayas,
particularly in the Majjhima and the Anguttara. It
seems to be the earliest manual of disciplinary rules compiled for the
guidance of monks and nuns.
The
Patimokkha consists of two parts, namely, the Bhikkhu-patimokkha and
the Bhikjkhuni-patimokkha, for monks and nuns respectively. The offences
that may be committed by monks and nuns have been classified according to
their gravity. The worst offences grouped under the heading Parajika,
which entailed the expulsion of the guilty from the community of monks,
are (i) lack of continence, (ii) theft, (iii) murder or abetment of
murder, and (iv) exaggeration of one’s power to perform miracles, etc.
the next group of offences, mentioned under the heading Sanghadisesa
(Sangha vasesa) entailed temporary suspension of the offending monks.
They could be re-admitted to the Sangha if found admissible by a chapter
of at least twenty monks. It mentions thirteen offences arising out of
the relation between monks and women, the construction of a hermitage,
false accusations, dissensions in the Sangha, and obstinacy. The third
section, called the Aniyata (uncertain), speaks of two cases which require
circumstantial evidence to ascertain the offence. The fourth section is
the Nissaggiya-pacittiya which deals with twenty-six offences that can be
committed by a monk who appropriates certain articles of use which were
not permissible. The offending monks could be absolved if they parted
with the article in question (nissaggiya-naihsargika) and confessed
their guilt (pacittiya payantika). The fifth section, entitled
Pacittiya, enumerates ninety-two offences relating to careless acts
leading to insecticide, to lack of respect for the Buddhist teachings and
disciplinary code and to non-compliance with the directions given in the
latter, and lastly to indiscreet acts in the use of beds, seats, robes,
etc., while dwelling in a monastery. The sixth section, called
Patidesaniya, speaks of only four offences relating to a monk’s taking
food which has not been offered to him. Absolution from all the offences
mentioned in these two sections can be obtained by a formal confession of
guilt before the Sangha. The seventh section, Sekhiya (Saiksa),
gives seventy-five instructions to be observed by a monk in his daily
life, for instance, how he must enter a village or a town, take food
inoffensively, enter a sick room, and so on. These are not treated as
offences and no punishment is therefore prescribed for them. The last
section is called the Adhikarana-samatha or the means of settling disputes
within the Sangha. There are seven of these. The first is to place the
two quarrelling monks face to face, the second to make one admit that his
memory had failed in regard to the point of dispute, while the third is to
make a monk admit that he was not in his normal mind when the point of
dispute arose. The fourth relates to the formality of confession, the
fifth to the use of salaka (voting sticks), the sixth to prevarication and
punishment for it, and the last to the avoidance of publicity to a dispute
within the Sangha.
(ii) The
Sutta-vibhanga-The Sutta-vibhanga is a commentary on the
Patimokkha-sutta. It opens with an account of a famine at Veranja
when the Buddha visited the place. The famine was of such intensity that
the people had to resort to rationing (salakavutti). The Buddha
then left Veranja and passed through Soreyya, Samkassa, Kannakujja, and
reached Payaga, where he crossed the Ganga and reched Banaras. From
Banaras he went to Vaisali and stopped at Mahavana Kutagarasala.
Near
Vaisali was the village of Kalandaka, where there lived a rich banker,
whose son, Sudinna, listened to the Buddha’s discourses at Vaisali and
became his disciple. At that time a famine broke out in the land of the
Vajjis. As Sudinna had many rich friends and relatives at Vaisali, he
decided to go there, so that he and his brethren might obtain ample alms.
One day Sudinna went on a begging round in his own village and asked for
the kummasa (rice-junket) which the maidservant of his parents was
about to throw away. When his mother heard the news of his arrival, she
persuaded his wife to meet him and beg for a son. Sudinna granted her
wish and went back to his monastery, became repentant and reported the
matter to his fellow brethren. When this was brought to the notice of the
Buddha, he reprimanded the erring monk severely and laid down a rule that
if a monk committed sexual indulgence, he would be guilty of parajika, and
thus become unfit to be a monk. This is the first rule of the
Patimokkha.
In the
manner indicated above, each rule was framed by the Buddha to deal with
the failings of the monks. The stories of such lapses do not, however,
represent actual incidents but were usually inventions of the
commentator. The commentator then explained the rule in detail. Apart
from the comments made on the phraseology of the rules, there are many
discussions on what a female is; what would happen if a change of sex
occurs;
the probable ways of sexual indulgence and related subjects. The cases of
sexual indulgences which do not come within the purview of the rule are
also discussed.
The
second rule deals with theft which also involved the expulsion of the
guilty from the community of monks. The subject is introduced through the
story of the monk Dhaniya, a potter’s son, who collected wood, without
anybody’s permission, to build his hermitage. In commenting upon the
words of the rule, the commentator has discussed the definitions of an
article and of theft. At the end he has pointed out the forms of taking
things which do not come within the purview of the rule.
The
other two rules of the Parajika have been dealt with likewise,
covering in all over 109 pages of the third volume of the
Vinaya-pitaka.
The
first rule of Sanghadisesa was laid down at Savatthi, where a monk
called Seyyasaka committed self-abuse. The commentator enumerates the
various ways in which such indulgences can take place and come within the
purview of the rule as well as those cases which deserve exemption.
The
second rule of the Sanghadisesa lays down that a monk must not come
in close touch with the body of a woman. This rule was laid down at
Savatthi, near which in a forest dwelt a monk, Udayi, who touched a
brahmani when she visited his hermitage.
The
commentator first raises the questions, “whether such contact was
intentional or accidental”, “what contact actually is”, and ends with the
statement that such contact with one’s mother, sister or daughter does not
come within the purview of the rule.
The same
monk is cited as the cause of the subsequent three rules. The commentator
discusses various types of girls and wives, the various circumstances in
which a monk commits offences under these rules and what constitutes an
exception. The rest of the rules are illustrated, commented upon and
elaborated in the same way.
In
commenting on the Nissaggiya-pacittiya section, the enthusiasm of the
commentator seems to have abated to a large extent. He does not discuss
many cases which may or may not come within the purview of the rules. The
exemptions allowed are stated in very general terms. For instance, if a
monk has an unbalanced mind, or is the first in the Sangha to commit the
offence, or if the circumstances are such that the breach of the rule is
inevitable, he need not be considered guilty of the breach of any of the
rules.
The
comments on the ninety-two rules of pacittiya open with an account
of Hatthaka, a Sakyan monk, who deliberately made false statements in a
disputation with the heretics. This led the Buddha to lay down the rule
that anyone uttering falsehoods wittingly is guilty of pacittiya.
The commentator details the circumstances in which the offence takes
place. The second rule was occasioned by the Chabbaggiya monks who spoke
disparagingly of the other monks. The commentator illustrates the evil
effects of such words by the story of the bull, Nandivisala, and in the
process of deciding whether the words were disrespectful or not, he
enumerates the various castes, professions and qualities which set a
person or a monk high or low in the estimation of the common people.
The four
rules of the Patidesaniya and the seventy-five rules of the Sekhiya have
been concisely commented upon while the seven ways of settling disputes
have been passed over without any comment whatsoever.
(iii)
The Bhikkhuni vibhanga – There are seven groups of offences in the
Bhikkhuni-vibhanga. These range from Parajika to Adhikarana-samatha
(settlement of disputes), and are arranged according to their gravity.
The
first section on Parajika includes four rules in addition to the four
prescribed in the Bhikkhu-patimokkha. In commenting on the fifth
rule, namely, that a nun with a lustful mind must not rub or touch the
middle part of a male’s body, the commentator tells the story of Salha,
the grandson of Migara, who managed to meet young Sndarinanda Bhikkhuni
and exposed her to the aforementioned offence. Then follow comments
on the words of the rules in detail but cases which may or may not come
within the purview of the rule are not cited. The commentator only
mentions the exceptional cases as usual. The other three rules are
similarly commented upon.
In the
second section, or the Sanghadisesa, seven rules are taken from the
Bhikku-patimokkha. The other ten are specially prescribed for the
community of nuns. The first rule instructs a nun to shun legal suits.
This as occasioned by a will left by a lay devotee who gave away a portion
of his property to the nunnery. It was disputed and the matter was placed
before the Law Minister (Voharika-mahamatta) for decision. The second
rule enjoins a nun to disclose to the proper authorities any information
that she may have concerning a theft. Here the proper authorities are
raja, Sangha, gana, puga, and seni. The next eight
rules restrict the nuns from moving about alone, from coming into contact
with men, from quarrelling and from showing lack of respect to the
Triratna. The comments are confined to the words of the rules only.
Of the
thirty rules in the Nissaggiya-pacittiya, which is the third
section, eighteen are taken from the Bhikkhu-patimokkha. The first
rule refers to the habit of some nuns to collect begging bowls. The
commentator describes different types of bowls and offers advice on what a
nun should do to avoid committing the offence. The next rule relates to
the irregularities in the distribution of robes. The following eight
rules deal with prevarications by nuns in the matter of their
requirements. The eleventh and twelfth rules prohibit a nun from asking
for a woolen robe worth more than four kamsas which are equivalent
to sixteen kahapanas or for a khoma robe worth more than two
and a half kamsas or ten kahapanas.
In the
fourth section, on the Pacittiya, the commentator comments on
ninety-six out of one hundred and sixty-six rules. The rules relate to
various matters concerning lapses common to women.
In the
fifth section, the Patidesanlya, the nuns are forbidden to take clarified
butter, oil, honey, molasses, fish, meat, condensed mil and curds.
The
sixth and seventh sections, Sekhiya and Adhikaranasamatha, are taken from
the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
(iv)
The Khandhakas – The Khandhakas are divided into two parts, the
Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The topics dealt with in the
two parts have not always had a clear distinction, besides lacking
sequence, and so some of the chapters of the Mahavagga and the
cullavagga have been put together here to enable the reader to have an
idea of the subject as dealt with in both the parts.
Among
the manuscript finds at Gilgit in Kashmir, a portion of the
Vinaya-pitaka of the Mula-sarvastivadins was discovered. This
manuscript has been published and throws a flood of light on the growth of
the Vinaya-pitaka. The order of the chapters in this manuscript is
as follows: (i) Pravrajya, (ii) Posadha, (iii)
Pravarana, (iv) Varsa, and (v) Carma,
(vi) Bhaisajya,
(vii) Civara, (viii) Kathina, (ix) Kosambaka, and (x)
Karma,
(xi) Pandulohitaka, (xii) Pudgala, (xiii) Parivasika,
(xvi) Posadhasthapana, (xv) Sayanasana,
and (xvi) Sanghabheda.
To introduce Devadatta, the chief figure of the Sanghabhedavastu, the
compiler of the Sanskrit Vinaya-pitaka has started the biography of
the Buddha from Prince Siddhartha’s vision of the four stages of human
beings, and carried the story up to his visit to Kapilavastu and the
conversion of the Sakyan youths including Devadatta. In the Pali
Vinaya-pitaka, the biography is put at the beginning of the
Mahavagga, while the story of the conversion of the Sakyan youths is
placed in the seventh chapter of the Cullavagga. On comparing the
Pali and Sanskrit texts, it appears that the compilers of the two versions
have depended upon an older model and made sporadic variations in the
arrangement and the detail of the accounts. Both of them preserve
substantially the same traditions and disciplinary rules, the only
difference being that while the Sanskrit version reproduces stories and
episodes extensively, the Pali version has avoided doing so as far as
possible.
The
Mahavagga can well be described as the history of the development of
the Buddhist Sangha. It opens with an account of the Buddha’s life from
the day he attained bodhi on the bank of the Niranjana and carries
the story up to the conversion of Yasa and his fifty-four friends
including Vimala, Subahu, Punnaji and Gavampati who were dispatched in
different directions to preach the Dharma.
However,
these young, untrained missionaries were not capable of deciding on the
type of persons fit for admission to the Sangha. For the guidance of such
disciples, the Buddha laid down elaborate rules, as and when occasion
arose, relating to the ordination of a newcomer.
The
second chapter of the text is devoted to the institution of a fortnightly
assembly, usually known as Uposatha (Posadha). If anyone was found
guilty of a serious offence, he was not permitted to stay in this
assembly. This had also been dealt with in the ninth chapter of the
Cullavagga under the sub-heading, Patimokkha-thapanam (laying aside,
i.e., not holding the Patimokkha assembly). One of the conditions
of these assemblies was that all monks living within a parish must be
preset at the meeting held at a particular monastery. In case of sickness
the monk concerned was required to depute a proxy, whose duty was to
declare his faults of omission or commission if any. Strictness on this
score led to the necessity of defining the boundaries of a parish, and so
elaborate rules had to be laid down for the determination of such
boundaries and such determination also had to be declared at a formal
meeting of the Sangha by moving the resolution three times and having it
passed unanimously.
The
third and fourth chapters deal with the monk’s residence during the rains
and the ceremony to be performed at the close of the Vassavasa. The monks
were asked to be generally itinerant as the chances of a lapse would be
greater if the resided at one place for a long time. But during the three
months of the rainy season the monks were for many reasons directed to
remain at a fixed abode. This practice was known as Vassavasa. It was
also observed by the Jaina and others recluses of the Buddha’s time.
There were, however, some occasions which urgently needed the presence of
a monk outside the limit of his abode. Accordingly, a monk was allowed to
go outside his limits for one week. Lest the monks should misuse this
privilege, specific purposes are mentioned for which this permission could
be granted. This topic concludes with the enumeration of circumstances
which justify the ending of the Vassavasa before the appointed time.
During
the Vassavasa, the monks were expected to live in concord and observe the
disciplinary rules. As this was not always possible, the Teacher
prescribed that at the end of the Vassavasa the monks should meet in
assembly and declare their acts of omission and commission. The
formalities to be observed in the assembly are the same as those
prescribed for the Uposatha ceremony. Such an assembly at the end of the
Vassavasa was called Pavarana. There are many instances of
irregularities, to remedy which the Teacher framed several rules.
Part of
the Pavarana ceremony was the distribution of robes collected on the
closing day. It was called the Kathina ceremony.
on the day of Pavarana, the laity offered unsown cloth to the resident
monks. It was laid down that if the Sangha received such offers, the
monks were expected to meet and declare formally that they were going to
celebrate the Kathina ceremony. The main function of this ceremony was to
entrust certain monks with the cutting, sewing and dyeing the robes, and
all this was to be finished in one day. When the robes were ready, they
were distributed among the residents. There were, however, cases of
doubtful claimants, and so rules were framed to determine who was really
entitled to a share of the robes.
The
fifth chapter opens with the story of Sona Kolivisa, the son of a very
wealthy man. His body was so delicate that hairs grew even on the soles
of his feet. He was given ordination by the Teacher himself. As a monk
he walked barefoot while performing religious exercises. His feet bled
and stained the places he walked on. The Buddha then asked him to put on
shoes but he demurred that as a monk it would not be proper for him to do
so. This led the Buddha to allow the use of shoes to all monks and he
prescribed certain forms of shoes to all monks and he prescribed certain
forms of shoes that could be used by the monks.
The
sixth chapter discusses the medicines permissible to sick monks and nuns.
It relates how, at the instance of Jivaka, the famous physician, the
Buddha allowed the sick monks to have all the medical and surgical aids
they required. This chapter contains a very interesting account of
surgical operations and instruments, of drugs and their preparation, of
containers and store-houses for medicines, and lastly, of medical aids
such as hot baths and special diets which included fruit and fruit juice,
milk products and sometimes meat broth. Reference is also made to
Jivaka’s skill in surgery and medicine. An account of the visit of the
Buddha to Pataligama, taken almost verbatim from the
Mahaparinibbana-sutta, is also included.
Gradually the monks were permitted to enjoy not only medical aid but also
many other amenities of life, which are detailed in the Cullavagga.
Detailed
descriptions of monasteries fitted with doors, windows and other necessary
adjuncts constructed by the laity for the use of the monks of the four
quarters are given in the sixth chapter of the Cullavagga. The
construction of the monasteries, according to the Vinaya rules, was
supervised by a monk called Navakammika. These monasteries were furnished
with seats and beds of an austere type. In this connection, the story of
the gift of the Jetavana monastery has been introduced, and with it is
given an account of how Anathapindika met the Buddha at Rajagrha and
became a devotee.
In the
fifth chapter of the Cullavagga there are several directions
relating to baths, the monk’s begging bowls, scissors and needles,
girdles, latrines, slings to carry bowls, shoes, hair-cutting, and so on.
Incidentally it is mentioned that the monks must not sing the gathas
aloud, or exhibit the power of miracles if they possessed any, and should
turn down their bowls at the houses of laymen who were not sufficiently
respectful to the Triratna.
The last
two chapters of the Mahavagga are devoted to irregularities in
ecclesiastical acts. A minimum number of monks is fixed for the
performance of different ecclesiastical duties or acts.
As the
Cullavagga is a continuation of the Mahavagga, it takes up,
in the first four chapters, the different punishments prescribed in the
Vinaya-pitaka and gives instructions as to how the monks should behave
when undergoing punishment.
In the
eighth chapter the resident monks of a monastery are instructed how to
receive monks from other places or forests and to look after their
comforts.
The
seventh chapter is devoted to an account of the dissensions that were
about to break out within the Sangha during the Buddha’s lifetime. As
Devadatta, a Sakyan relative of the Teacher, turned out to be the leader
of the dissentient monks, the chapter gives, by way of an introduction, an
account of the conversion of the Sakyan youths, namely, Anuruddha,
Bhaddiya, Sakyaraja, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila and Devadatta, and their
barber, Upali.
Devadatta joined hands with Ajatasatru and made a heinous attempt on the
Buddha’s life by hiring a gang of ruffians by using a stone, and an
elephant. Devadatta at last found a few friends and demanded that the
Sangha should make the following five rules compulsory for all monks,
viz., that the monks were (i) to live only in forests, (ii)
to subsist on alms, (iii) to dress in robes made out of rags, (iv)
to dwell under a tree and never under a roof, and (v) never to eat
fish or flesh. When his demand was rejected by the Buddha, he formed a
band of his own from amongst the Vajjiputtaka monks of Vaisali. The
chapter concludes with a note on the conditions in which an actual
dissension in the Sangha would be regarded as a Sanghabheda.
The
tenth chapter relates the story of the formation of the Order of nuns at
the instance of Mahaprajapati Gautami and the mediation of Ananda,. The
Buddha very reluctantly agreed to its formation and imposed eight
disabilities (garudhamma) on the nuns. At first the Teacher wanted the
nuns to depend on the monks for all their ecclesiastical acts, and also
receive from them instruction on Vinaya as well as on Dhamma, but it was
found that sometimes the monks were not wise and discreet in the discharge
of their duties to the nuns. This led the Buddha to permit the nuns to
perform most of their ecclesiastical acts themselves, and rules of
procedure were laid down for them. In this chapter there are detailed
instructions to check the frivolities of the females sex regarding dress,
toilet, beds, seats, and so on.
The last
two chapters, which, strictly speaking, should not have formed a part of
the Cullavagga, contain a full description of the first two
Councils, held at Sattapanniguha of Rajagrha and Valikarama of Vaisali.
The main object of the first two Counciks was to make an authoritative
compilation of the Buddha’s sayings. It was presided over by Mahakassap,
Ananda taking the responsibility of reciting the discourses delivered by
the Buddha, and Upali the disciplinary rules framed by the Teacher. This
compilation was accepted by the monks in general with a few exceptions.
The second Council was held a hundred years later. Its main purpose was
to suppress the deviations made by the Vajjiputtaka monks of Vaisali in
some of the disciplinary rules.
The
deviations were declared illegal by a committee of eight monks, of whom
four were selected from the orthodox monks of the western countries and
four from the dissident party of the eastern countries. Not all the
monks, however, accepted the findings of this committee and a new sect,
well known as the Mahasanghikas, came into existence.
