CHAPTER 36
THE WAY TO NIBBĀNA (II)
MEDITATION
"One way to acquire gain, another that leads to
Nibbāna.
-- DHAMMAPADA
Concentration
(Samādhi)
Securing a firm footing on the ground of
morality, the aspirant then embarks upon the higher practice of Samādhi,
the control and culture of the mind, the second stage of the Path of
Purity.
Samālhi
is one-pointedness of the mind. It is concentration of the mind on one
object to the entire exclusion of all else.
According to Buddhism there are forty subjects
of meditation (kammatthāna) which differ according to the
temperaments of individuals.
They are:
(a) The ten Kasinas (devices)
[1] -- namely,
i. earth Kasina, ii. water Kasina, iii. fire
Kasina, iv. air Kasina, v. blue Kasina, vi. yellow Kasina, vii. red
Kasina, viii. white Kasina, ix. light Kasina and x. space Kasina.
(b) The ten Impurities (asubha)
[2] --
namely, ten corpses which are respectively:--
i. bloated (uddhumātaka), ii.
discoloured (vini-laka), iii. festering (vipubbaka), iv.
dissected (vicchiddaka), v. gnawed-to-pieces (vikkhāyi-taka),
vi. scattered-in-pieces (vikkhittaka), vii. mutilated and
scattered-in-pieces (hata-vikkhit-taka), viii. bloody (lohitaka),
ix. worm-infested (pulapaka), and x. skeleton (atthika).
(c) The ten Reflections (anussati)
[3]-- namely,
eight Reflections on:
i. The Buddha (Buddhānussati), ii. The
Doctrine (Dhammānussati), iii. The Sangha (Sanghānussati),
iv. Virtue (sīlanussati), v. Liberality (cāgānussati), vi.
Devas (devatā-nussati), vii. Peace (upasamānussati), viii.
Death (maranānussati), respectively, together with ix. Mindfulness
regarding the body (kāyagatāsati) and x. Mindfulness regarding
respiration (ānāpānasati).
(d) The four Illimitables or the four
Modes of Sublime Conduct (Brahmavihāra) -- namely,
loving-kindness (mettā), Compassion (karunā),
Appreciative Joy (muditā), and Equanimity (upekkhā).
(e) The One Perception -- i.e.,
the Perception of the loathsomeness of material food (āhāre
patikkūla-saññā).
[4]
(f) The One Analysis -- i.e.,
The Analysis of the four Elements (catudhātuvavatthāna)
[5].
(g) The four Arūpa Jhānas --
namely,
The Realm of the Infinity of Space (Ākāsānañcāyatana),
The Realm of the Infinity of Consciousness (Viññānañcāyatana),
The Realm of Nothingness (Ākiñcaññāyatana), and the Realm of
Neither-Perception nor Non-Perception (N'eva saññā n'āsaññāyatana).
Suitability of Subjects for different
Temperaments
According to the Texts the ten Impurities and
the Mindfulness regarding the Body such as the thirty-two parts are
suitable for those of a lustful temperament because they tend to create a
disgust for the body which fascinates the senses.
The four Illimitables and the four coloured
Kasinas are suitable for those of a hateful temperament.
The Reflections on the Buddha and so forth are
suitable for those of a devout temperament. The Reflections on Death and
Peace, Perception on the loathsomeness of material food, and Analysis of
the four Elements are suitable for those of an intellectual temperament.
The remaining objects, chiefly Reflection on the Buddha, Meditation on
Loving-Kindness, Mindfulness regarding the Body and Reflection on Death
are suitable for all, irrespective of temperament.
There are six kinds of Temperaments (carita).
They are:-
i. Lustful Temperament (rāgacarita),
ii. Hateful Temperament (dosacarita),
iii. Ignorant Temperament (mohacarita),
iv. Devout Temperament (saddhācarita),
v. Intellectual Temperament (buddhicarita), and
vi. Discursive Temperament (vitakkacarita).
Carita
signifies the intrinsic nature of a person which is revealed when one is
in normal state without being preoccupied with anything. The temperaments
of people differ owing to the diversity of their actions or Kamma.
Habitual actions tend to form particular temperaments.
Rāga or
lust is predominant in some while dosa or anger, hatred, illwill in
others. Most people belong to these two categories. There are a few others
who lack intelligence and are more or less ignorant (mohacarita).
Akin to ignorant are those whose minds oscillate unable to focus their
attention deliberately on one thing (vitakka-carita). By nature
some are exceptionally devout (saddhācarita) while others are
exceptionally intelligent (bhuddhicarita).
Combining these six with one another, we get 63
types. With the inclusion of speculative temperament (ditthicarita)
there are 64 types.
The subjects of meditation are variously
adapted to these different temperaments and types of people.
Preparation
Before practising Samādhi, the qualified
aspirant should give a careful consideration to the subject of meditation.
In ancient days it was customary for pupils to seek the guidance of a
competent teacher to choose a suitable subject according to their
temperaments. But, today if no competent teacher is available, the
aspirant must exercise his own judgement and choose one he thinks most
suited to his character.
When the subject has been chosen, he should
withdraw to a quiet place where there are the fewest distractions. The
forest, a cave, or any lonely place is most desirable, for there one is
least liable to interruption during the practice.
It should be understood that solitude is within
us all. If our minds are not settled, even a quiet forest would not be a
congenial place. But if our minds are settled, even the heart of a busy
town may be congenial. The atmosphere in which we live acts as an indirect
aid to tranquillize our minds.
Next to be decided by the aspirant is the most
convenient time when he himself and his surroundings are in the
best possible condition for the practice.
Early in the morning when the mind is fresh and
active, or before bedtime, if one is not overtired, is generally the most
appropriate time for meditation. But whatever the time selected, it is
advisable daily to keep to that particular hour, for our minds then become
conditioned to the practice.
The meditating posture, too, serves as a
powerful aid to concentration.
Easterners generally sit cross-legged, with the
body erect. They sit placing the right foot on the left thigh and the left
foot on the right thigh. This is the full position. If this posture is
difficult, as it certainly is to many, the half position may be adopted,
that is, simply placing the right foot on the left thigh or the left foot
on the right thigh.
When this triangular position is assumed, the
whole body is well balanced. The right hand should be placed on the left
hand, the neck straightened so that the nose is in a perpendicular line
with the navel. The tongue should rest on the upper palate. The belt
should be loosened, and clothes neatly adjusted. Some prefer closed eyes
so as to shut out all unnecessary light and external sights.
Although there are certain advantages in
closing the eyes, it is not always recommended as it tends to drowsiness.
Then the mind gets out of control and wanders aimlessly, vagrant thoughts
arise, the body loses its erectness, quite unconsciously the mouth opens
itself, saliva drivels, and the head nods.
The Buddhas usually sit with half closed eyes
looking through the tip of the nose not more than a distance of four feet
away.
Those who find the cross-legged posture too
difficult may sit comfortably in a chair or any other support,
sufficiently high to rest the feet on the ground.
It is of no great importance what posture one
adopts provided it is easy and relaxed.
The aspirant who is striving to gain
one-pointedness of the mind should endeavour to control any unwholesome
thoughts at their very inception. As mentioned in the Sutta Nipāta
[6] he may be
attacked by the ten armies of the Evil One. They are: i. sensual
desires (kāma),
ii. discouragement (arati), iii. hunger
and thirst (khuppipāsā), iv. attachment (tanhā), v. sloth
and torpor (thīnamiddha), vi. fear (bhaya), vii.
doubt (vicikicchā), viii. detraction and stubbornness (makkha,
thambha), ix. gain, praise, honour and ill-gotten fame (lābha,
siloka, sakkāra, micchāyasa), and x. self-praise and contempt for
others (attukkamsana paravambhana).
On such occasions the following practical
suggestions given by the Buddha will be beneficial to all.
1. Harbouring a good thought opposite to the
encroaching one, e.g., loving-kindness in case of hatred.
2. Reflecting upon possible evil consequences,
e.g., anger sometimes results in murder.
3. Simple neglect or becoming wholly
inattentive to them.
4. Tracing the cause which led to the arising
of the unwholesome thoughts and thus forgetting them in the retrospective
process.
5. Direct physical force.
Just as a strong man overpowers a weak person,
so one should overcome evil thoughts by bodily strength. "With teeth
clenched and tongue pressed to the palate," advises the Buddha, "the monk
by main force must constrain and coerce his mind; and thus with clenched
teeth and taut tongue, constraining and coercing his mind, those evil and
unsalutary thoughts will disappear and go to decay; and with their
disappearing, the mind will become settled, subdued, unified, and
concentrated (Majjhima Nikāya, Vitakka Santhāna Sutta, No 20.)
Having attended to all these necessary
preliminaries, the qualified aspirant retires to a solitary place, and
summoning up confidence as to the certainty of achieving his goal, he
makes a persistent effort to develop concentration.
Kasina
A physical object like a Kasina circle only
aids concentration. But a virtue like loving-kindness has the specific
advantage of building up that particular virtue in the character of the
person.
While meditating one may intelligently repeat
the words of any special formula, since they serve as an aid to evoke the
ideas they represent.
However intent the aspirant may be on the
object of his meditation he will not be exempt from the initial
difficulties that inevitably confront a beginner. "The mind wanders, alien
thoughts dance before him, impatience overcomes him owing to the slowness
of progress, and his efforts slacken in consequence." The determined
aspirant only welcomes these obstacles, the difficulties he cuts through
and looks straight to his goal, never for a moment turning away his eyes
from it.
Suppose, for instance, an aspirant takes an
earth-kasina for his object (kammatthāna).
The surface of a circle of about one foot in
diameter is covered with clay and smoothed well. This concentrative circle
is known. as the preliminary object (parikamma nimitta). He sets it
down some four feet away and concentrates on it, saying -- pathavi,
pathavi (earth, earth), until he becomes so wholly absorbed in it that
all adventitious thoughts get automatically excluded from the mind. When
he does this for some time -- perhaps weeks or months or years -- he would
be able to visualize the object with closed eyes. On this visualized image
(uggaha nimitta), which is a mental replica of the object, he
concentrates until it develops into a conceptualized image (patibhāga
nimitta).
According to the Visuddhi Magga the difference
between the first visualized image and the second conceptualized image is
that "in the former a fault of the kasina object appears while the latter
is like the disc of a mirror taken out of a bag, or a well-burnished
conch-shell, or the round moon issuing from the clouds."
The conceptualized image neither possesses
colour nor form. It is just a mode of appearance and is born of
perception.
As he continually concentrates on this abstract
concept he is said to be in possession of "proximate concentration" (upacāra
samādhi) and the innate five Hindrances to spiritual progress (nivarana)
-- namely, sensual desires (kāmacchanda), hatred (vyāpāda),
sloth and torpor (thīnamiddha), restlessness and worry (uddhaccakukkucca),
and indecision (vicikicchā), are temporarily inhibited by means
of one-pointedness (ekaggatā), zest (pīti), initial
application, (vitakka), happiness (sukha), and sustained
application (vicāra) respectively.
Eventually he gains 'ecstatic concentration'
(appanā samādhi) and becomes absorbed in Jhāna, enjoying the calmness
and serenity of a one-pointed mind.
This one-pointedness of the mind, achieved by
inhibiting the Hindrances, is termed 'Purity of Mind' (cittavisuddhi),
the second stage on the Path of Purity.
For the water-kasina one may take a vessel full
of colourless water, preferably rainwater, and concentrate on it, saying
-- āpo, āpo, (water, water) -- until he gains one-pointedness of
the mind.
To develop the fire-kasina one may kindle a
fire before him and concentrate on it through a hole, a span and four
fingers wide, in a rush-mat, a piece of leather, or a piece of cloth.
One who develops the air-kasina concentrates on
the wind that enters through window-space or a hole in the wall, saying --
vāyo, vāyo (air, air).
To develop the colour kasinas one may make a
disc (mandala) of the prescribed size and colour it blue, yellow,
red, or white and concentrate on it repeating the name of the colour as in
the case of the earth-kasina.
He may even concentrate on blue, yellow,
red and white flowers.
Light-kasina may be developed by concentrating
on the moon or an unflickering lamplight or on a circle of light made on
the ground or the wall by sunlight or moonlight entering through a
wall-crevice or holes, saying -- āloka, āloka (light,
light).
Space-kasina could be developed by
concentrating on a hole; a span and four fingers wide, in either a
well-covered pavilion or a piece of leather or a mat, saying -- okāsa,
okāsa (space, space).
Asubha:--
The ten kinds of corpses were found in
ancient Indian cemeteries where dead bodies were not buried or cremated
and where flesh-eating animals frequent. In modern days finding
them is out of question.
Anussati:--
Buddhānussati --
is the reflection on the virtues of the
Buddha as follows:-
"Such indeed is that Exalted One --
Worthy, Fully Enlightened, Endowed with Wisdom and Conduct, Well-farer,
Knower of the Worlds, an Incomparable Charioteer for the training of
individuals, Teacher of gods and men, Omniscient, and Holy."
Dhammānussati
-- is the reflection, on the
characteris-tics of the Doctrine as foIlows:--
"Well-expounded is the doctrine by the Blessed
One, to be realized by oneself, of immediate fruit, inviting investigation
(Ehi-passiko: inviting to come and see), leading to Nibbāna, to be
understood by the wise, each one for himself."
Sanghānussati --
is the reflection on the virtues of the
pure members of the Holy Celibate Order as follows:-
"Of good conduct is the Order of the disciples
of the Blessed one; of upright conduct is the Order of the disciples of
the Blessed One; of wise conduct is the Order of the disciples of the
Blessed One; of dutiful conduct is the Order of the disciples of the
Blessed One. These four pairs of persons constitute eight individuals.
This Order of the disciples of the Blessed One is worthy of
offerings, is worthy of hospitality, is worthy of gifts, is worthy of
reverential salutation, is an incomparable field of merit to the world."
Sīlānussati --
is the reflection on the perfection of
one's own virtuous conduct.
Cāganussati --
is the reflection on one's own
charitable nature.
Devatānussati --
"Deities are born in such exalted states
on account of their faith and other virtues, I too possess them." Thus
when one reflects again and again on one's own faith and other virtues,
placing deities as witnesses, it is called Devatānussati.
Upasamānussati --
is the reflection on the
attributes of Nibbāna such as the cessation of suffering and the like.
Maranānussati --
is the reflection on the termination of
psycho-physical life.
Contemplation on death enables one to
comprehend the fleeting nature of life. When one understands that death is
certain and life is uncertain, one endeavours to make the best use
of one's life by working for self-development and for the development of
others instead of wholly indulging in sensual pleasures. Constant
meditation on death does not make one pessimistic and lethargic, but, on
the contrary, it makes one more active and energetic. Besides, one can
face death, with serenity.
While contemplating death one may think that
life is like a flame, or that all so-called beings are the outward
temporary manifestations of the invisible Kammic energy just as an
electric light is the outward manifestation of the invisible electric
energy. Using various similes as one likes, one may meditate on the
uncertainty of life and on the certainty of death.
Kāyagatāsati --
is the reflection on the 32 impure parts
of the body such as "hair, hair of the body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh.
sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs,
bowels, mesentery, stomach, faeces, brain, bile, phlegm, pus, blood,
sweat, lymph, tears, grease, saliva, nasal mucus, articular fluid, and
urine."
This meditation on the loathsomeness of the
body leads to dispassion. Many Bhikkhus in the time of the Buddha attained
Arahantship by meditating on these impurities. If one is not conversant
with all the thirty-two parts, one may meditate on one part such as bones,
flesh, or skin. Inside this body is found a skeleton. It is filled with
flesh which is covered with a skin. Beauty is nothing but skin deep. When
one reflects on the impure parts of the body in this manner, passionate
attachment to this body gradually disappears.
This meditation may not appeal to those who are
not sensual. They may meditate on the innate creative possibilities of
this complex machinery of man.
Ānāpānasati --
is mindfulness on respiration. Āna means
inhalation and apāna, exhalation.
In some books these two terms are explained in
the reverse order.
Concentration on the breathing process leads to
one-pointedness of the mind and ultimately to Insight which leads to
Arahantship.
This is one of the best subjects of meditation
which appeals equally to all. The Buddha also practised this
ānāpānasati before His Enlightenment.
A detailed exposition of this meditation is
found in the Satipatthāna Sutta and in the Vissuddhi
Magga.
Practical hints
A few practical hints are given here for the
benefit of the average reader.
Adopting a convenient posture, breathe out and
close the mouth. Then breathe through the nostrils naturally and not
forcefully. Inhale first and mentally count one. Exhale and count two,
concentrating on the breathing process. In this manner one may
count up to ten constantly focussing one's attention on respiration. It is
possible for the mind to wander before one counts up to ten. But one need
not be discouraged. Let one try till one succeeds. Gradually one may
increase the number of series -- say five series of ten. Later one may
concentrate on respiration without counting. Some prefer counting as it
aids concentration, while some others prefer not to count.
What is essential is concentration and not
counting which is secondary. When one does this concentration, one feels
light in body and mind and very peaceful too. One might perhaps feel as if
one were floating in the air. When this concentration is practised for a
certain period, a day will come when one will realize that this so-called
body is supported by mere breath and that body perishes when breathing
ceases.
One instantly realizes impermanence. Where
there is change there cannot be a permanent entity or an immortal soul.
Insight could then be developed to gain Arahantship.
It is now clear that the object of this
concentration on respiration is not merely to gain one pointedness but
also to cultivate Insight in order to obtain deliverance.
This simple method may be pursued by all
without any harm.
For more details readers are referred to the
Visuddhi Magga.
Ānāpāna Sati according to the Satipatthāna
Sutta -- "Mindfully he inhales, mindfully he exhales.
I. "When making a long inhalation, he knows: 'I
make a long inhalation, when making a long exhalation, he knows: 'I make a
long exhalation.'
2. "When making a short inhalation he knows: 'I
make a short inhalation'; when making a short exhalation, he knows: 'I
make a short exhalation.'
3. "Clearly perceiving the entire breathing-
process (i.e.,
the beginning, middle and end), 'I will inhale'
thus he
trains himself; clearly perceiving the entire
breathing
process, 'l will exhale': thus he trains
himself.
4. "Calming the respirations, 'I will inhale':
thus he trains himself; calming the respirations, 'I will exhale': thus he
trains himself."
Brahmavihāra
Here Brahma means sublime or noble as in
Brahmacariya (sublime life); vihāra means mode or state of conduct,
or state of living.
They are also termed appamaññā
(limitless, boundless), because these thoughts are radiated towards all
beings without limit or obstruction.
Mettā (Samskrit-Maitri)
loving-kindness, benevolence, goodwill -- is defined as that which softens
one's heart. It is not carnal love or personal affection. The direct enemy
of Mettā is hatred, illwill or aversion (kodha), its
indirect enemy is personal affection (pema).
Mettā
embraces all beings without exception. The culmination of Mettā is
the identification of oneself with all beings (sabbattatā). It is
the wish for the good and happiness of all. Benevolent attitude is its
chief characteristic. It discards illwill.
Karunā
(compassion) is defined as that which makes the hearts of the good quiver
when others are subject to suffering, or that which dissipates the
sufferings of others. Its chief characteristic is the wish to remove the
sufferings of others. Its direct enemy is wickedness (himsa) and
its indirect enemy is passionate grief (domanassa). Compassion
embraces sorrow-stricken beings and it eliminates cruelty.
Muditā is
not mere sympathy but sympathetic or appreciative joy. Its direct enemy is
jealousy (issā) and its indirect enemy is exhilaration (pahāsa).
Its chief characteristic is happy acquiescence in others' prosperity
and success (anumodanā). Muditā embraces all prosperous
beings. It eliminates dislike (arati) and is the congratulatory
attitude of a person.
Upekkhā --
lit., means to view impartially, that is, with
neither attachment nor aversion. It is not hedonic indifference but
perfect equanimity or well-balanced mind. It is the balanced state of mind
amidst all vicissitudes of life, such as praise and blame, pain and
happiness, gain and loss, repute and disrepute. Its direct enemy is
attachment (rāga) and its indirect enemy is callousness. Upekkhā
discards clinging and aversion. Impartial attitude is its chief
characteristic. Here upekkhā does not mean mere neutral
feeling, but implies a sterling virtue. Equanimity, mental equilibrium are
its closest equivalents. Upekkhā embraces the good and the bad, the
loved and the unloved, the pleasant and the unpleasant.
The Visuddhimagga describes in detail the
method to cultivate the Brahmavihāras in order to develop the Jhānas.
Supernormal powers
When once the aspirant succeeds in cultivating
the Jhānas he can, without difficulty, develop the five supernormal powers
(abhiññā) -- namely, Divine Eye (dibbacakkhu), Divine
Ear (dibbasota), Reminiscence of past births (pubbe
nivāsānussatiñāna), Thought-reading (paracittavijāñāna), and
various Psychic powers (iddhi-vidha).
Samādhi
and these supernormal powers, it may be mentioned, are not essential for
the attainment of Arahantship, though they would undoubtedly be an asset
to the possessor. There are, for instance, dry-visioned Arahants (sukkhavipassaka)
who, without the aid of the jhānas, attain Arahantship straightway
by merely cultivating Insight. Many men and women attained Arahantship in
the time of the Buddha Himself without developing the jhānas.
It is only one who has gained the fifth
Jhāna that could develop the five kinds of Abhiññā.
Dibbacakkhu
is the Celestial or Divine Eye, also called
clairvoyance, which enables one to see heavenly or earthly things, far or
near, that are imperceptible to the physical eye.
Cutupapātañāna,
knowledge with regard to the dying and
reappearing of beings, is identical with this Celestial Eye.
Anāgatamsañāna, knowledge with regard to the future and
Yathākammūpagatañāna, knowledge with regard to the faring of beings
according to their own good and bad actions, are two other kinds of
knowledge belonging to the same category.
Dibbasota
is the Celestial Ear, also called
clairaudience, which enables one to hear subtle or coarse sounds far or
near.
Pubbenivāsānussatiñānā
is the power to remember the past lives of
oneself and others. With regard to this knowledge the Buddha's power is
limitless, while in the case of others it is limited.
Paracittavijāñāna
is the power to discern the thoughts of others.
Iddhividha
is the power to fly through the air, walk on
water, dive into the earth, create new forms etc.
[1]
Kasina here means whole, all, complete. It is so called because the
projected light issuing from the conceptualized image of the Kasina object
could be extended everywhere without limitation.
In the case of earth Kasina one makes a circle
of about one span and four fingers in diameter and, covering it with
dawn-coloured clay, smoothes it well. If there be not enough clay of the
dawn colour, he may introduce some other kind of clay beneath. This
concentrative circle is known as Kasina-Mandala.
The remaining Kasinas should be similarly
understood. Details are given in the Visuddhi Magga. It may be
mentioned that light and space Kasinas are not found in the Text. When
they are excluded there are thirty eight subjects.
[2]
These ten kinds of corpses were found in ancient cemeteries and charnel
places where dead bodies were not buried or cremated and where
flesh-eating beasts and birds frequent. In modern days it is impossible to
obtain such corpses as subjects for meditation.
[3]
Anussati -- lit., means constant mindfulness.
[4]
Āhāre patikkūlasañña -- i.e., the feeling of loathsomeness
of food in its search, eating, etc.
[5]
Catudhātuvavatthānam -- i.e., the investigation of the four
primary elements of extension (pathavi), cohesion (āpo),
heat (tejo), and motion (vāyo), with regard to their special
characteristics.
[6]
Padhāna Sutta. See p. 28.
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