CHAPTER 15
THE TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA
What is Buddhism ?
"This doctrine is profound, hard to see, difficult to understand, calm,
sublime, not within the sphere of logic, subtle, to be
understood by the wise".
-- MAJJHIMA NIKĀYA
Tipitaka
The Buddha has passed away, but the sublime
Teaching, which He expounded during His long and successful ministry and
which He unreservedly bequeathed to humanity, still exists in its pristine
purity.
Although the Master has left no written
records of His Teachings, His disciples preserved them, by committing to
memory and transmitting them orally from generation to generation.
Three months after the Death of the Buddha,
in the eighth year of King Ajātasattu's reign, 500
pre-eminent Arahants concerned with preserving the purity of the Doctrine
held a Convocation at Rājagaha to rehearse it. The Venerable Ānanda
Thera, the Buddha's beloved attendant who had the special privilege and
honour of hearing the discourses from the Buddha Himself, and the
Venerable Upāli Thera were chosen to answer questions about the
Dhamma (Doctrine) and the Vinaya (Discipline) respectively.
This First Council compiled and arranged in
its present form the Pāli Tipitaka, which represents the entire body of
the Buddha's Teaching.
Two other Councils
[1] of Arahants
were held 100 and 236 years later respectively, again to rehearse the Word
of the Buddha because attempts were being made to pollute the pure
Teaching.
About 83 B.C., during the reign of the
pious Simhala King Vatta Gāmani Abhaya,
[2] a
Council of Arahants was held, and the Tipitaka was, for the first time in
the history of Buddhism, committed to writing at Aluvihāra
[3] in Ceylon.
Thanks to the indefatigable efforts of
those noble and foresighted Arahants, there is no room either now or in
the future for higher critics or progressive scholars to adulterate the
pure Teaching.
The voluminous Tipitaka, which contains the
essence of the Buddha's Teaching, is estimated to be about eleven times
the size of the Bible.
The word Tipitaka
[4] means three
Baskets. They are the Basket of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), the
Basket of Discourses (Sutta Pitaka) and the Basket of Ultimate
Doctrine (Abhidhamma Pitaka).
Vinaya Pitaka
The Vinaya pitaka, which is regarded as the
sheet anchor of the Holy Order, deals mainly with the rules and
regulations of the Order of Bhikkhus (monks) and Bhikkhunis
(nuns). For nearly twenty years after the Enlightenment of the Buddha,
no definite rules were laid down for control and discipline of the Sangha
(Order). Subsequently as occasion arose, the Buddha promulgated
rules for the future discipline of the Sangha. Reasons for the
promulgation of rules, their various implications, and specific Vinaya
ceremonies of the Sangha are fully described in the Vinaya pitaka. The
history of the gradual development of Sāsana
[5] from its very
inception, a brief account of the life and ministry of the Buddha, and
details of the three Councils are some other additional relevant contents
of the Vinaya Pitaka. Indirectly it reveals useful information about
ancient history, Indian customs, ancient arts and sciences. One who reads
the Vinaya Pitaka cannot but be impressed by the democratic constitution
of the Sangha, their holding of possessions in common, the exceptionally
high moral standard of the Bhikkhus, and the unsurpassed administrative
abilities of the Buddha, who anticipated even the present Parliamentary
system. Lord Zetland writes; "And it may come as a surprise to many to
learn that in the Assemblies of the Buddhists in India two thousand years
and more ago are to be found the rudiments of our own Parliamentary
practice of the present day.
[6]"
The Vinaya Pitaka consists of the
following five books:
|
1.
Pārājika Pāli |
Vibhanga
|
(Major Offences) |
|
2. Pācittiya Pāli |
(Minor Offences) |
|
3. Mahāvagga Pāli |
Khandaka
|
(Greater Section) |
|
4. Cullavagga Pāli |
(Lesser Section) |
|
5. Parivāra Pāli |
|
(Epitome of the Vinaya) |
Sutta Pitaka
The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of
instructive discourses delivered by the Buddha to both the Sangha and the
laity on various occasions. A few discourses, expounded by disciples such
as the Venerables Sāriputta, Moggallāna, and Ānanda,, are
incorporated and are accorded as much veneration as the Word of the Buddha
Himself, since they were approved by Him. Most of the sermons were
intended mainly for the benefit of Bhikkhus, and they deal with the Holy
Life and with the exposition of the Doctrine. There are several other
discourses which deal with both the material and the moral progress of His
lay-followers. The Sigālovāda Sutta,
[7] for
instance, deals mainly with the duties of a layman. There are also a few
interesting talks given to children.
This Pitaka may be compared to a book of
prescriptions, since the discourses were expounded on diverse occasions to
suit the temperaments of various persons. There may be seemingly
contradictory statements, but they should not be misconstrued as they were
uttered by the Buddha to suit a particular purpose; for instance, to the
self same question He would maintain silence, when the inquirer was merely
foolishly inquisitive, or give a detailed reply when He knew the inquirer
to be an earnest seeker after the Truth.
The Sutta Pitaka consists of
the following five Nikāyas (Collections):
1.
Dīgha Nikāya (Collection of Long Discourses)
2. Majjhima Nikāya (Collection of Middle-length Discourses)
3. Samyutta Nikāya (Collection of Kindred Sayings)
4. Anguttara Nikāya (Collection of Gradual Sayings)
5. Khuddaka Nikāya (Smaller Collection)
This fifth is subdivided into fifteen
books:
1. Khuddaka Pātha (Shorter Texts)
2. Dhammapada (The Way of Truth)
3. Udāna (Paeans of Joy)
4. Itivuttaka ("Thus said" Discourses)
5. Sutta Nipāta (Collected Discourses)
6. Vimāna Vatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)
7. Peta Vatthu (Stories of Petas)
8. Theragāthā (Psalms of the Brethren)
9. Therigāthā (Psalms of the Sisters)
10. Jātaka (Birth Stories of the Bodhisatta)
11. Niddesa (Expositions)
12. Patisambhidā (Book on Analytical Knowledge)
13. Apadāna (Lives of Arahants)
14. Buddhavamsa (History of the Buddha)
15. Cariyā Pitaka (Modes of Conduct)
Abhidhamma Pitaka
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is the most important
and most interesting of the three containing as it does the profound
philosophy of the Buddha's teaching in contrast to the simpler discourses
in the Sutta Pitaka.
Abhidhamma, the Higher Doctrine of the
Buddha, expounds the quintessence of His profound teachings.
[8]
According to some scholars Abhidhamma is
not a teaching of the Buddha, but is a later elaboration of scholastic
monks. Tradition, however, attributes the nucleus of the Abhidhamma to the
Buddha Himself. The Mātikā or Matrices of the Abhidhamma, such as
Kusalā Dhammā (Wholesome States), Akusalā Dhammā
(Unwholesome States), and Abyākata Dhammā (Indeterminate States),
etc., which have been elaborated in the six books (Kathāvatthu
[9] being
excluded), were expounded by the Buddha. To the Venerable Sāriputta
is assigned the honour of having explained all these topics in detail.
Whoever the great author or authors may
have been, it has to be admitted that the Abhidhamma must be the product
of an intellectual genius comparable only to the Buddha. This is evident,
from the intricate and subtle Patthāna Pakarana which describes in
detail the various causal relations.
To the wise truth-seekers, Abhidhamma is an
indispensable guide and an intellectual treat. Here is found food for
thought to original thinkers and to earnest students who wish to develop
wisdom and lead an ideal Buddhist life. Abhidhamma is not a subject of
fleeting interest designed for the superficial reader.
Modern Psychology, limited as it is, comes
within the scope of Abhidhamma inasmuch as it deals with mind, thoughts,
thought-processes, and mental properties; but it does not admit of a
psyche or a soul. It teaches a psychology without a psyche.
If one were to read the Abhidhamma as a
modern text-book on psychology, one would be disappointed. No attempt has
here been made to solve all the problems that confront a modern
psychologist.
Consciousness (Citta) is defined.
Thoughts are analysed and classified chiefly from an ethical standpoint.
All mental properties (Cetasika) are enumerated. The composition of
each type of consciousness is set forth in detail. How thoughts arise is
minutely described. Bhavanga and Javana thought-moments,
which are explained only in the Abhidhamma, and which have no parallel in
modern psychology, are of special interest to research students in
psychology. Irrelevant problems that interest students and scholars, but
have no relation to one's Deliverance, are deliberately set aside.
Matter is summarily discussed, but it has
not been described for physicists. Fundamental units of matter, material
properties, source of matter, relationship of mind and matter are
explained. Abhidhamma does not attempt to give a systematised knowledge of
mind and matter. It investigates these two composite factors of the
so-called being, to help the understanding of things as they truly are. A
philosophy has been developed on those lines. Based on that philosophy, an
ethical system has been evolved to realize the ultimate Goal, Nibbāna.
As Mrs. Rhys Davids rightly says:
"Abhidhamma deals with
(i) what we find within us, around us; and of
(ii) what we aspire to find."
While the Sutta Pitaka contains the
conventional teaching (vohāra desanā), the Abhidhamma Pitaka
contains the ultimate teaching (paramattha desanā).
It is generally admitted by most exponents
of the Dhamma that a knowledge of the Abhidhamma is essential to
comprehend fully the Teachings of the Buddha, as it presents the key that
opens the door of reality.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka is composed of
the following seven works:
1.
Dhammasangani (Classification of Dhamma)
2. Vibhanga (Divisions)
3. Dhātukathā (Discourse on Elements)
4. Puggala Paññatti (The Book on Individuals)
5. Kathāvatthu (Points of Controversy)
6. Yamaka (The Book of Pairs)
7. Patthāna (The Book of Causal Relations)
Is Buddhism a Philosophy?
The sublime Dhamma, enshrined in these
sacred texts, deals with truths and facts that can be tested and verified
by personal experience and is not concerned with theories and
speculations, which may be accepted as profound truths today and thrown
overboard tomorrow. The Buddha did not expound revolutionary philosophical
theories, nor did He attempt to create a new material science. In plain
terms He explained both what is within and what is without, so far as it
concerns emancipation from the ills of life, and revealed the unique Path
of Deliverance.
Furthermore, the Buddha did not teach all
that He knew. On one occasion while the Buddha was staying in a forest, He
took a handful of leaves and said: "O Bhikkhus, what I have taught you is
comparable to the leaves in my hand, and what I have not taught you, to
the leaves in the forest.[10]"
He taught what He deemed was absolutely
essential for one's purification, and was characteristically silent on
questions irrelevant to His noble mission. Incidentally, He forestalled
many a modern scientist and philosopher.
Heraclitus
(500 B.C.) believed that everything
flows (pante rhei) and that the universe is a constant becoming. He
taught that nothing ever is; everything is becoming. It was he who made
the famous statement that a person cannot step into the same stream twice.
Pythagoras (532 B.C.) taught, among other things, the theory of
transmigration of souls. Descartes (1596-1650) declared the
necessity of examining all phenomena at the bar of reasonable doubt.
Spinoza (I632-1677). while admitting the existence of a permanent
reality, asserted that all existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow
was to be conquered by finding an object of knowledge which is not
transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting.
Berkely (1685-1776) thought that the so-called atom was a metaphysical
fiction. Hume (1711-1776) analysed the mind and concluded that
consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. In the view of Hegel
(1770-1831) "the entire phenomenon is a becoming." Schopenhauer
(1788-1860) in his "World as Will and Idea" has presented the truth of
suffering and its cause in Western garb. Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
advocated the doctrine of change, and emphasized the value of intuition.
William James (1842-1910) referred to a stream of consciousness and
denied the existence of a soul.
The Buddha expounded these truths of
transiency (anicca), sorrow (dukkha), and soul-lessness (anattā)
more than 2500 years ago.
The moral and philosophical teachings of
the Buddha are to be studied, to be practised, and above all to be
realized by one's own intuitive wisdom. As such the Dhamma is compared to
a raft which enables one to cross the ocean of life.[11]
Buddhism, therefore, cannot strictly be
called a philosophy because it is not merely "the love of, inducing the
search after, wisdom.
[12]" Nor is
Buddhism "a hypothetical interpretation of the unknown (as in
metaphysics), or of the inexactly known (as in ethics or political
philosophy).[13]"
If by philosophy is meant "an inquiry not
so much after certain particular facts as after the fundamental character
of this world in which we find ourselves, and of the kind of life which
such a world it behoves us to live,
[14]
Buddhism may approximate to a philosophy,
but it is very much more comprehensive.
[15]
Philosophy deals mainly with knowledge and
is not concerned with practice; whereas Buddhism lays special emphasis on
practice and realization.
Is Buddhism a Religion?
Prof. Rhys Davids writes:
"What is meant by religion? The word, as is
well-known is not found in languages not related to our own, and its
derivation is uncertain. Cicero, in one passage, derived it from re
and lego, and held that its real meaning was the repetition of
prayers and incantations. Another interpreta-tion derives the word
from re and logo, and makes its original sense that of
attachment, of a continual binding
(that is, no doubt to the gods). A third derivation connects the word
with lex, and explains it as a law-abiding, scrupulously
conscientious frame of mind.
[16]"
Buddhism is not strictly a religion in the
sense in which that word is commonly understood, for it is not "a
system of faith and worship," owing any allegiance to a supernatural God.
Buddhism does not demand blind faith from
its adherents. Hence mere belief is dethroned and for it is substituted
"confidence based on knowledge." It is possible for a Buddhist to
entertain occasional doubts until he attains the first stage of Sainthood
(Sotāpatti) when all doubts about the Buddha, Dhamma, and the
Sangha are completely resolved. One becomes a genuine follower of the
Buddha only after attaining this stage.
[17]
The confidence of a follower of the Buddha
is like that of a patient in respect of a noted physician, or of a student
regarding his teacher. Although a Buddhist seeks refuge in the Buddha as
his incomparable guide and teacher who indicates the Path of Purity, he
makes no servile surrender.
A Buddhist does not think that he can gain
purity merely by seeking refuge in the Buddha or by mere faith in Him. It
is not within the power even of a Buddha to wash away the impurities of
others. Strictly speaking, one can neither purify nor defile another. The
Buddha, as Teacher, may be instrumental, but we ourselves are responsible
for our purification.
In the Dhammapada the Buddha says:
"By, oneself alone is evil done: by oneself is one defiled.
By oneself alone is evil avoided: by oneself alone is one
purified.
Purity and impurity depend on oneself: No one can
purify another." (v. 145).
A Buddhist is not a slave to a book or to
any individual. Nor does he sacrifice his freedom of thought by becoming a
follower of the Buddha. He is at full liberty to exercise his own
freewill and develop his knowledge even to the extent of attaining
Buddhahood himself, for all are potential Buddhas. Naturally Buddhists
quote the Buddha as their authority, but the Buddha Himself discarded all
authority.
Immediate realization is the sole criterion
of truth in Buddhism. Its keynote is rational understanding (Sammā
ditthi). The Buddha advises seekers of truth not to accept
anything merely on the authority of another but to exercise their own
reasoning and judge for themselves whether a thing is right or wrong.
On one occasion the citizens of Kesaputta,
known as Kālāmas, approached the Buddha and said that many ascetics
and brahmins who came to preach to them used to exalt their own doctrines
and denounce those of others, and that they were at a loss to understand
which of those worthies were right.
"Yes, O Kā1āmas, it is right for you to doubt, it is right for you to
waver. In a doubtful matter, wavering has arisen,
[18]" remarked the Buddha and gave them the
following advice which applies with equal force to modern rationalists as
it did to those sceptic brahmins of yore.
"Come, O Kālāmas, Do not accept anything on mere hearsay (i.e.,
thinking that thus have we heard it from a long time). Do not accept
anything by mere tradition (i.e., thinking that it has thus been handed
down through many generations). Do not accept anything on account of
rumours (i.e., by believing what others say without any investigation). Do
not accept anything just because it accords with your scriptures. Do not
accept anything by mere supposition. Do not accept anything by mere
inference. Do not accept anything by merely considering the appearances.
Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your preconceived
notions. Do not accept anything merely because it seems acceptable (i.e.,
should be accepted). Do not accept anything thinking that the ascetic
is respected by us (and therefore it is right to accept his word.)
"But when you know for yourselves -- these things are immoral, these
things are blameworthy, these things are censured by the wise, these
things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to ruin and sorrow -- then
indeed do you reject them.
"When you know for yourselves -- these things are moral, these things are
blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when
performed and undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness -- then do
you live and act accordingly.
[19]"
These wise sayings of the Buddha, uttered
some 2500 years ago, still retain their original force and freshness even
in this enlightened twentieth century.
With a homely illustration
Jnānasāra-samuccaya repeats the same counsel in different words.
"Tāpāc
chedāc ca nikasat svarnam iva panditaih
Parikshya blikshavo grāhyam madvaco na tu gauravāt".
"As
the wise test gold by burning, cutting and rubbing it (on a piece of
touchstone),
so are you to accept my words after examining them and not merely out of
regard for me."
The Buddha exhorted His disciples to seek
the truth, and not to heed mere persuasion even by superior authority.
Now, though it be admitted that there is no
blind faith in Buddhism, one might question whether there is no
worshipping of Buddha images and such like idolatry amongst Buddhists.
Buddhists do not worship an image expecting
worldly or spiritual favours, but pay their homage to what it represents.
A Buddhist goes before an image and offers flowers and incense not to the
image but to the Buddha. He does so as a mark of gratitude, reflecting on
the virtues of the Buddha and pondering on the transiency of flowers. An
understanding Buddhist designedly makes himself feel that he is in the
noble presence of the Buddha, and thereby gains inspiration to emulate
Him.
Referring to images, the great philosopher
Count Kaiserling writes:
"I know nothing more grand in this world
than the figure of the Buddha. It is the perfect embodiment of
spirituality in the visible domain.
[20]"
Then again Buddhists do not worship the
Bodhi-tree, but consider it a symbol of Enlightenment, and so, worthy of
reverence.
Though such external forms of homage are
prevalent amongst Buddhists, the Buddha is not worshipped as a God.
These external objects of homage are not
absolutely necessary, but they are useful and they help one to concentrate
one’s attention. An intellectual could dispense with them as he could
easily focus his attention on the Buddha, and thus visualize Him.
For our own good, and out of gratitude, we
pay such homage, but what the Buddha expects from His disciples is not
obeisance but the actual observance of His teaching.
Just before the Buddha passed away, many
disciples came to pay their respects to Him. One Bhikkhu, however,
remained in his cell absorbed in meditation. This matter was reported to
the Buddha who summoned him and, on enquiring the reason for his absence,
was told: "Lord, I knew that Your Reverence would pass away three months
hence, and I thought the best way of honouring the Teacher was by
attaining Arahantship even before the decease of Your Reverence."
The Buddha extolled the praiseworthy
conduct of that loyal and dutiful Bhikkhu, saying: "Excellent, excellent!
He who loves me should emulate this Bhikkhu. He honours me best who
practises my teaching best.
[21]"
On another occasion the Buddha remarked:
"He who sees the Dhamma sees me.
[22]"
Furthermore, it must be mentioned that
there are no petitionary or intercessory prayers in Buddhism. However much
one may pray to the Buddha one cannot be saved. The Buddha does not and
cannot grant worldly favours to those who pray to Him. A Buddhist should
not pray to be saved, but should rely on himself and strive with diligence
to win his freedom and gain purity. Advising His disciples not to depend
on others but to depend on oneself and to be self-reliant, the Buddha
says:
Tumhehi kiccam ātappam akkhātāro tathāgatā.
[23]
"Striving should be done by yourselves. The Tathāgatas are teachers."
The Buddha not only speaks of the futility
of prayers
[24] but also
disparages a slave mentality. Instead of prayers the Buddha emphasizes the
importance of meditation that promotes self-discipline, self-control,
self-purification and self-enlightenment. It serves as a tonic both to the
mind and heart. Meditation is the essence of Buddhism.
In Buddhism there is not, as in most other
religions, an Almighty God to be obeyed and feared. Buddhism denies the
existence of a supernatural power, conceived as an Almighty Being or a
causeless force. There are no Divine revelations nor Divine messengers or
prophets. A Buddhist is therefore not subservient to any higher
supernatural power which controls his destinies and which arbitrarily
rewards and punishes. Since Buddhists do not believe in revelations of a
Divine Being, Buddhism does not claim the monopoly of truth and does not
condemn any other religion. "Intolerance is the greatest enemy of
religion". With His characteristic tolerance, the Buddha advised His
disciples not to get angry, discontented, or displeased even when others
spoke ill of Him, or of His Teaching, or of His Order. "If you do so," the
Buddha said, "you will not only bring yourselves into danger of spiritual
loss, but you will not be able to judge whether what they say is correct
or not correct" -- a most enlightened sentiment. Denouncing unfair
criticism of other faiths, the Buddha states: "It is as a man who looks up
and spits at heaven -- the spittle does not soil the heaven, but it comes
back and defiles his own person.
[25]"
Buddhism expounds no dogmas that one must
blindly believe, no creeds that one must accept on good faith without
reasoning, no superstitious rites and ceremonies to be observed for formal
entry into the fold, no meaningless sacrifices and penances for one's
purification.
Buddhism cannot, therefore, be strictly
called a religion, because it is neither a system of faith and worship,
nor "the outward act or form by which men indicate their recognition of
the existence of a God or Gods having power over their own destiny to whom
obedience, service, and honour are due.
[26]"
Karl Marx said: "Religion is the soul of
soulless conditions, the heart of a heartless world, the opium of the
people." Buddhism is not such a religion, for all Buddhist nations grew up
in the cradle of Buddhism and their present cultural advancement is
clearly due mainly to the benign influence of the teachings of the Buddha.
However, if, by religion, is meant "a
teaching which takes a view of life that is more than superficial, a
teaching which looks into life and not merely at it, a teaching which
furnishes men with a guide to conduct that is in accord with this in-look,
a teaching which enables those who give it heed to face life with
fortitude and death with serenity.
[27]" or a system
of deliverance from the ills of life, then certainly Buddhism is a
religion of religions.
[28]
Is Buddhism an Ethical System?
Buddhism contains an excellent moral code,
including one for the monks and another for the laity, but it is much more
than an ordinary moral teaching.
Morality (sīla) is only the
preliminary stage and is a means to an end, but not an end in itself.
Though absolutely essential, it alone does not lead to one's Deliverance
or perfect purity. It is only the first stage on the Path of Purity.
Beyond morality is wisdom (paññā). The base of Buddhism is
morality, and wisdom is its apex. As the pair of wings of a bird are these
two complementary virtues. Wisdom is like unto man's eyes; morality is
like unto his feet. One of the appellatives of the Buddha is
Vijjācaranasampanna -- endowed with wisdom and conduct.
Of the Four Noble Truths that form the
foundation of Buddhism, the first three represent the philosophy of the
Buddha's teaching; the fourth the ethics of Buddhism based on that
philosophy.
Morality in Buddhism is not founded on any
doubtful divine revelation, nor is it the ingenious invention of an
exceptional mind, but it is a rational and practical code based on
verifiable facts and individual experience. In the opinion of Prof. Max
Muller the Buddhist moral code is one of the most perfect which the world
has ever known.
Prof. Rhys Davids says: "Buddhist or no
Buddhist I have examined every one of the great religious systems of the
world; and in none of those have I found anything to surpass in beauty and
comprehensiveness the Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddha. I am content to
shape my life according t o that path."
It is interesting to note that according to
Buddhism there are deeds which are ethically good and bad, deeds which are
neither good nor bad, and deeds which tend to the ceasing of all deeds.
Good deeds are essential for one's emancipation, but when once the
ultimate goal of the Holy Life is attained, one transcends both good and
evil.
The Buddha says: "Righteous things (dhamma)
you have to give up: how much more the unrighteous things (adhamma).
[29]"
The deed which is associated with
attachment (lobha), illwill (dosa) and delusion (moha)
is evil. That deed which is associated with non-attachment (alobha),
goodwill (adosa), and wisdom (paññā), is good.
The deeds of an Arahant, a Stainless One,
possess no ethical value as he has gone beyond both good and evil. This
does not mean that he is passive. He is active, but his activity is
selfless and is directed to help others to tread the path he has trodden
himself. His deeds, ordinarily accepted as good, lack creative power as
regards himself. Unlike the actions of a worldling his actions do not
react on himself as a Kammic effect.
His actions, in Pāli, are called kiriya
(functional). Purest gold cannot further be purified.
The mental states of the four types of
supramundane Path consciousness, namely, Sotāpatti (Stream-Winner),
Sakadāgāmi (Once-Returner), Anāgāmi (Non-Returner) and
Arahatta (Worthy), though wholesome (kusala), do not tend to
accumulate fresh Kamma, but, on the contrary, tend to the gradual
cessation of the individual flux of becoming, and therewith to the gradual
cessation of good and evil deeds. In these types of supramundane
consciousness the wisdom factor (paññā), which tends to destroy the
roots of Kamma, is predominant; while in the mundane types of
consciousness volition (cetanā) which produces Kammic activities is
predominant.
What is the criterion of morality according
to Buddhism?
The answer is found in the admonition given
by the Buddha to young Sāmanera Rāhula.
"If
there is a deed, Rāhula, you wish to do, reflect thus: Is this deed
conducive to my harm, or to others’ harm, or to that of both? Then is this
a bad deed entailing suffering. From such a deed you must resist.
"If
there is a deed you wish to do, reflect thus: Is this deed not conducive
to my harm, nor to others' harm, nor to that of both? Then is this a good
deed entailing happiness. Such a deed you must do again and again.
[30]"
In assessing morality a Buddhist takes into
consideration the interests both of himself and others -- animals not
excluded.
In the Karaniya Mettā Sutta the
Buddha exhorts:
"As
the mother protects her only child even at the risk of her own life; even
so let one cultivate boundless thoughts of loving-kindness towards all
being".
[31]"
The Dhammapada states:
"All fear punishment, to all life is dear. Comparing others with oneself,
let one neither hurt nor kill.
[32]"
To understand the exceptionally high
standard of morality the Buddha expects from His ideal followers, one must
carefully read the Dhammapada, Sigālovāda Sutta, Vyāgghapajja Sutta,
Mangala Sutta, Mettā Sutta, Parābhava Sutta, Vasala Sutta, Dhammika Sutta,
etc.
As a moral teaching it excels all other
ethical systems, but morality is only the beginning and not the end of
Buddhism.
In one sense Buddhism is not a philosophy,
in another sense it is the philosophy of philosophies.
In one sense Buddhism is not a religion, in
another sense it is the religion of religions.
What Buddhism is
Buddhism is neither a metaphysical path nor
a ritualistic path.
It is neither sceptical nor dogmatic.
It is neither eternalism nor nihilism.
It is neither self-mortification nor
self-indulgence.
It is neither pessimism nor optimism but
realism.
It is neither absolutely this-worldly nor
other-worldly.
It is not extravert but introvert.
It is not theo-centric but homo-centric.
It is a unique Path of Enlightenment.
The original Pāli term for Buddhism is
Dhamma, which, literally, means that which upholds or sustains (him
who acts in conformity with its principles and thus prevents him from
falling into woeful states). There is no proper English equivalent
that exactly conveys the meaning of the Pāli term.
The Dhamma is that which really is. It is
the Doctrine of Reality. It is a Means of Deliverance from suffering and
Deliverance itself. Whether the Buddhas arise or not the Dhamma exists
from all eternity. It is a Buddha that realizes this Dhamma, which ever
lies hidden from the ignorant eyes of men, till He, an Enlightened One,
comes and compassionately reveals it to the world.
"Whether the Tathāgatas appear or not, O Bhikkhus, it remains a fact, an
established principle, a natural law that all conditioned things are
transient (anicca), sorrowful (dukkha)
and that everything is soulless (anattā). This fact the Tathāgata
realizes, understands and when He has realized and understood it,
announces, teaches, proclaims, establishes, discloses, analyses, and makes
it clear, that all conditioned things are transient, sorrowful, and that
everything is soulless.
[33]"
In the Majjhima Nikāya the Buddha says:
"One thing only does the Buddha teach, namely, suffering and the cessation
of suffering.
[34]"
This is the Doctrine of Reality.
Udāna states: "Just as, O Bhikkhus, the
mighty ocean is of one flavour, the flavour of salt, even so, O Bhikkhus,
this Dhamma is of one flavour, the flavour of Deliverance (Vimutti).
[35]
This is the Means of Deliverance.
This sublime Dhamma is not something apart
from oneself. It is purely dependent on oneself and is to be realized by
oneself. As such the Buddha exhorts:
"Attadipā
viharatha attapatisaranā.
[36]"
-- Abide with oneself as an island, with oneself as a refuge.
"Dhammadīpā
viharatha, dhamma patisaranā, n’āñña
patisaranā "
-- Abide with the Dhamma as an island, with the dhamma as a refuge. Seek
not for external refuge.
[37]
[1]
See Mahāvamsa Translation pp. 14-50.
[2] Ibid. pp.
19-50.
[3] A hamlet in
the interior of Ceylon, about 24 miles from Kandy. This sacred rock temple
is still a place of pilgrimage to the Buddhists of Ceylon.
Buddhaghosuppatti, a biography of the Great Commentator Buddhaghosa,
states that the amount of books written on ola leaves when piled up would
exceed the height of six elephants.
[4] Samskrit --
Tripitaka.
[5] Dispensation
-- Sāsana is the Pāli term applied to the whole Buddhist Church.
[6] See Legacy
of India,
Edited by G. T. Garrat, pp, X, XI.
[7] Commenting on
this Sutta, Mrs. Rhys Davids says "Happy would have been the village or
the clan on the banks of the Ganges where the people were full of the
kindly spirit of fellow-feeling and the noble spirit of justice, which
breathe through these naive and simple sayings." See Dialogues of the
Buddha part 111. p. 168.
[8] See "The
Manual of Abhidhamma" by the Author.
[9] Points of
'Controversy: the authorship of which is attributed to Venerable
Moggaliputta Tissa who presided at the Third Council in the time of King
Asoka.
[10] Samyutta
Nikāya vol. 5, pp. 437-438, Kindred Sayings, part 5, p. 370.
[11] Majjhima
Nikāya, No. 22
[12] Webster's
Dictionary
[13] William
Durrant, The History of Philosophy, p. 2.
[14] Webb,
History of Philosophy, p. 2.
[15] A philosophy
in the sense of an epistomological system which furnishes a complete reply
to the question of the what, of the what is life? -- this is not."
(Dr. Dahlke, Buddhism, p. 25.)
[16] Buddhism,
p. 1.
[17] An ordinary
adherent may be genuine enough as a follower, but he is not a sharer by
realization of the Buddha-Dhamma.
[18] The
bracketed explanatory parts of the foregoing translation are in accordance
with the interpretations of the commentary and sub-commentary. The Pā1i
text of this important passage is as follows:
"Etha tumhe Kālāma. Mā anussavena, mā
paramparāya, mā itikirāya, mā
pitasampādānena, mā takkahetu, mā nayahettu, mā
ākāraparivitakkena, mā ditthinijjhānakkhantiyā, mā bhabbarūtpatāya, mā
samano no garū ti.
[19] Anguttara
Nikāya vol. i, p. 189; Kindred Sayings, part i, pp. 171, 172.
[20] Travel
Diary of a Philosopher.
[21] See
Buddhist Legends, vol. 3. pp. 249, 250.
[22] Samyutta
Nikāya vol. 3. p. 129.
[23] Dhammapada
v. 276.
[24] Comp.
"Prayer is an activity in which I frankly confess I am not an adept."
Canon B. H. Streeter in Modern Churchman -- Sept.
1924, p. 347.
"I do not understand how men continue to
pray unless they are convinced there is a listening ear." (Rev. C. Beard,
Reformation, p. 419.)
Sir Radhakrishnan states –"Prayers take the
character of private communications, selfish bargaining with God. It seeks
for objects of earthly ambitions and inflames the sense of self.
Meditation on the other hand is self change."
[25] See Sri
Radhakrishnan, Gautama the Buddha.
[26] Webster's
Dictionary.
[27] Ex-Bhikkhu
Silācāra. See Ceylon Daily News -- Vesak Number May 1939.
[28] Dr. Dahlke,
in arguing What Buddhism is, writes --"With this, sentence of condemnation
is passed upon Buddhism as a religion. Religion, in the ordinary
sense as that which points beyond this life to one essentially different,
it cannot be." Buddhism and its Place in the Mental World, p. 27.
[29] Majjhima
Nikāya, Sutta No. 22.
[30] Majjhima
Nikāya, Rāhulovāda Sutta, No. 61. See pp. 130-133.
[31] Sutta Nipāta
[32] V. 129
[33] Anguttara
Nikāya Part 1, p. 286.
[34] Majjhima
Nikāya Vol. 1, p. 140 No. 22
[35] p. 67
[36] Parinibbāna
Sutta; see chapter 14.
[37] Ibid.
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