One Foot in the
World
Buddhist Approaches
to Present-day Problems
by
Lily De Silva
The Wheel Publication No. 337/338
SL ISSN 0049-7541
Copyright (C) 1986 Buddhist
Publication Society
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Society
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Contents
Preface
The dispensation of the Buddha includes not only
monks and nuns, but male and female lay followers as well. All these four groups
comprising the Buddhist community have but one ultimate goal. That goal is the attainment
of Nibbana.
Though Nibbana means final
liberation from the world, while walking along the path to liberation a Buddhist has to
live in the world and deal with the conditions of worldly existence. This problem is
likely to be felt especially acutely by the lay Buddhist, who may find that the demands
and attractions of secular life tend to pull him away from the path to deliverance.
However, the Buddha was not unaware of or unconcerned about this dilemma confronted by his
lay disciples, but gave it his careful attention. He taught his lay followers how to
organize lay life in accordance with the ethical principles of the Dhamma and how to lead
successful lay lives without deviating from the path of rectitude.
As lay Buddhists, we must be ever
vigilant so that in our pursuit of worldly goals such as wealth, pleasure, and success we
do not lose sight of our spiritual goal.
Care should be taken especially to
avoid the violation of the basic moral principles summed up in the Five Precepts, as such
violation leads to regression on the path. We must often remind ourselves that the first
two of the four stages of holiness can be attained by those still leading a married life;
that there have been non- returners of the third stage who continued to remain in lay life
though observing celibacy; and that the texts record instances of laymen who even attained
arahatship prior to their deaths. The Pali Canon contains ample evidence of exemplary
laymen and laywomen, such as Anathapindika, Visakha, and the parents of Nakula, to mention
only the most prominent. Therefore a layman should make every endeavor to follow the way
to the end of suffering in this very life itself, by leading a life of moderation and
self-discipline and by practicing meditation with the aim of developing insight into the
ultimate truths of life and death.
The essays in this booklet explore
various facets of experience from lay life which require the attention of the lay aspirant
to deliverance. They deal particularly with those which have become more pronounced and
urgent in our contemporary materialistic and secularized world. My wish is to share these
ideas with others who also may be attempting to follow the Buddha's path in the lay life,
and are thus walking with one foot on the way to Nibbana and one foot still in the world.
I hope these essays will assist them to understand and overcome the problems they may face
in their day-to- day lives.
A Layman's Happiness
Life in the modern age has become particularly
trying and problematic. Though it remains a fact that the standard of living has generally
improved, man is still suffering immensely under the weight of present-day living. The
physical condition of man has been reduced to such a pathetic level that he succumbs to
untimely death by killer diseases such as cancer, heart failure, diabetes, etc. to an
unprecedented degree. Mentally, he is so tension-ridden that he has forgotten the art of
relaxing, and he cannot even enjoy sound sleep without the aid of tranquilizers. In this
set up interpersonal relations have become so brittle and vulnerable that the divorce rate
has become alarmingly high, thus letting loose a whole series of other social problems
such as uncared-for children, juvenile delinquency, suicide, etc. Thus life has become a
problematic burden and a solution to make life more tolerable and enjoyable is a great
pressing need.
As the world of the Buddha is of
everlasting value and universal applicability, and as the Buddha preached not only to
monks and nuns but also to the lay public as well, it is useful to find a teaching of the
Buddha which is relevant to our present-day problems. In the Pattakammavagga of the
Anguttara Nikaya (A II, 69) the Buddha preached a sutta to Anathapindika on the fourfold
pleasures of a layman. It is our considered opinion that this sutta offers adequate
insight to meet the demands of the present-day problems as well. The four types of
pleasure listed there are: atthisukha, the pleasure of having material wealth; bhogasukha,
the pleasure of enjoying material wealth; ananasukha, the pleasure of being
debtless; and anavajjaskha, the pleasure of being blameless. Let us take these for
discussion one by one and see how these sources of pleasure can be harnessed for leading a
happy life in the present-day world.
Atthisukha -- Man should not
only have a righteous means of living, avoiding blameworthy trades such as dealing in
meat, liquor, poison, firearms and slavery, he should also entertain a wholesome attitude
towards his righteous occupation. For instance, if a doctor welcomes epidemics in the
locality in order to make much money, or a trader hopes for natural calamities to send
market prices up, the money earned by such unscrupulous individuals is not righteous money
as their intentions are impure and foul. Also one should not deceive or exploit others in
carrying out one's occupation. Exerting oneself with great perseverance, one should earn
one's living, and such hard-earned wealth is called righteous wealth (dhammika
dhammaladdha). Again one could have great wealth, but if one does not experience a
sense of contentment with what one has, one cannot really enjoy atthisukha or the
pleasure of having. The amassing of wealth of such a person is like trying to fill a
bottomless vessel. This is one of the widespread maladies we see in the present-day
society. Inordinate expansion of wealth becomes a source not of happiness, but of anxiety.
Such wealth exposes the possessor to the jealousies and maneuvers of other unscrupulous
individuals, hence the occurrence of blackmailing and kidnapping from time to time. But if
one does have a righteous means of earning one's living and the correct attitude to
wealth, one can escape many of the hazards which money brings in its wake to modern
man.
Bhogasukha -- Wealth has only
instrumental value and the proper enjoyment of wealth is an art which is worth carefully
cultivating. Buddhism deplores both extravagance and miserly hoarding. One must maintain a
healthy balanced standard of living according to one's means. If, in the enjoyment of
wealth, one overindulges in sense pleasures, one is bound to run into health hazards in a
very short time. If, for instance, one overindulges in food just because one can afford
it, one will soon be overcome by diseases such as heart failure, high blood pressure and
diabetes. Such a one will be faced with the situation of "cutting his neck with his
own tongue." Moderation in food is a virtue praised in Buddhism and it is a
health-promoting habit. Often in the name of enjoying wealth, man cultivates unhealthy
habits such as smoking and drinking. It is paradoxical that man, who actually loves
himself most, should act as if he were his own worst enemy by indulging in habits which
ultimately reduce him to a physical wreck. It is medically established that smoking causes
the highest percentage of lung cancer, and that drinking causes irreparable damage to
vital organs of the body. If only one pauses to ponder over one's own welfare, and if only
one entertains at least some degree of compassion towards oneself, one would not get into
the clutches of these vicious habits. Wealthy men often end up in the pitiful plight of
the ant fallen in the pot of honey. Such men did not know the art of enjoying bhogasukha.
The regard the body as an instrument for pleasure, and they wear out and debilitate the
body's capacity for enjoyment in double quick time, long before the natural process of
wear and tear sets in. If we love ourselves, we have to treat our bodies with proper care
without taxing it with overindulgence and deprivation. It is with the body that we can
enjoy not only the pleasures of the senses, but even the spiritual bliss of Nibbana.
Another aspect of the joy of wealth is the art of sharing. Without being an Adinnapubbaka,
a "never-giver," if one learns to share one's riches with the less fortunate
have-nots, one will have the noble experience of being happy at the joy of another. At the
same time one will learn the love and good will of others, instead of becoming the target
of jealousy and intrigue.
Ananasukha -- The pleasure of
being debtless is the third quality discussed in our sutta. Economically if one can be
completely free of debt, one is indeed a very fortunate person. To be really debtless in
society one has to discharge one's obligations scrupulously. As a wage earner one has to
discharge one's duties for which one is paid, otherwise one can be indebted to the wage
one gets. As a parent one has to fulfill one's obligations to one's children. In our
society children are taught to worship and look after their parents, and it is well to
bear in mind that parents too have to qualify themselves for the honor they receive by
being dutiful parents. It should be emphasized that fathers who neglect their families as
a result of their addiction to vices such as drinking and gambling fall far short of the
ideal of debtlessness. One can have the satisfaction of being debtless only if one has
fulfilled one's obligations in all social roles one has to perform.
Anavajjasukha -- The
satisfaction of leading a blameless life is the highest form of satisfaction that a layman
can have. Every society has a code of ethics to be followed by its members. According to
Buddhism the minimum code of ethics regulating the life of its adherents is the pa?casila,
the Five Precepts.[1] If one practices these virtues, one can
have the satisfaction of leading a righteous life to a great extent. Refraining from doing
to others what one does not like others to do unto oneself is the basic principle
underlying these virtues. Buddhism speaks of hiri and ottappa, the sense of
shame and the fear to do wrong, as deva dhamma or celestial qualities. These are
the basic qualities which separate man from the animal kingdom. Unlike the animals man has
a conscience which makes him squeamish about doing wrong. Buddhism recognizes blameless
mental activity as well. Mental activities which spring from greed, hatred and delusion
are unwholesome and blameworthy. Let us see how such mental behavior is a source of
unhappiness. Take for instance the case of a person who is angry. What are the symptoms of
anger? Hard breathing, accelerated heart beat, faster circulation of blood, feeling hot,
sweating, trepidation, restlessness, etc. -- these are the physical manifestations of
anger. These are certainly not comfortable physical experiences. Each time the cause of
anger is remembered, even though the physical manifestations of anger may not be that
marked, one feels quite restless and mentally ill at ease. We use expressions such as
"boiling with anger," "I got the devil on to me," etc. to mean getting
angry, and these sayings are literally expressive of the situation. It is just not
possible for one to be angry and happy at the same time. An irritable person is truly a
very sad person, and what is worse he infects others around him too with the same sadness.
The cultivation of sublime modes of behavior such as loving kindness, compassion,
sympathetic joy and equanimity are truly conducive to happy living. Those who live with
such attitudes habitually are pleasant and amicable people who can be happy alone as well
as in company.
If we truly understand the
significance of the four kinds of happiness elucidated in our sutta, and translate them
into action, life will be much more pleasant and happy even in this modern age.
The Mechanics of Bondage and Suffering
The Buddhist texts repeatedly describe man as being
bound and fettered to suffering. Many Pali words are used to describe this pathetic
situation, such as samyojana, bandha and pasa, meaning bond, fetter,
and snare, respectively. One sutta employs a simple simile to illustrate the manner in
which man is fettered to samsaric life. According to this simile a black bull and a
white bull are tied together with a rope. In this situation it cannot be said that the
black bull is a fetter to the white bull, or that the white bull is a fetter to the black
bull. Actually it is the rope with which the two are tied together that constitutes the
fetter. Similarly the external world is not a fetter to man, nor is man a fetter to the
external world. It is the desire for pleasure with which man is bound to the external
world that forms the fetter. Desire is a very strong fetter which chains man to the
external world and thereby to the ever recurring cycle of births and deaths. This strong
fetter has six strands emerging from the six sense faculties, namely, the eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body, and the mental faculty. The last mentioned faculty is called mano in
Pali and is regarded as the sense that unifies all other faculties.
The Pali word for sense faculty is indriya,
a very interesting word which reveals much about our human situation. Indra means
lord or king, and the sense faculties are called indriyas because they dominate us
so much. They act as our lords or masters and we slavishly obey them. The eye wishes to
see pleasant forms, the ear wishes to hear pleasant sounds, the nose to smell pleasant
smells, the tongue to enjoy pleasant tastes, and the body to feel pleasant tactile
objects. The mental faculty which unifies all other sense faculties, gets terribly
disturbed as it is dragged in different directions by the different sense stimuli, while
it has to deal with its own share of agitations in the form of hopes, memories, and
imaginations. The Chappanaka Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya beautifully illustrates
the struggle of the six senses with an eloquent simile. According to this simile, six
animals having different habits and diverse fields of action are tied together in one knot
by a strong rope. The six animals are a crocodile who tries to run to the water, a bird
who tries to fly in the air, a dog who tries to run to a village, a fox who tries to flee
to a cemetery, a monkey who tries to go to the forest, and a snake who tries to creep into
an anthill. These six animals are constantly struggling to reach their respective
habitats. Similarly, the six senses are constantly seeking gratification in their own
spheres, and the man who has no control over his sense faculties becomes terribly
confused.
Through our senses we are chained to
sense stimuli. We are chained to pleasant sense stimuli by the way of greed. We love to
see pleasant objects and we spend a great deal of time, energy, and money in our endeavor
to procure as many pleasant objects as possible. We love to hear pleasant words; if
someone speaks in praise of us once we will often recall it with pleasure and be attached
to that pleasure. We love to eat tasty food. This is a great weakness in most of us. Even
when rich food is detrimental to our health, the desire to please the tongue is so great
that we indulge in food even at the risk of our precious lives. This is how we sometimes
go to the extent of beheading ourselves with our tongues. Man's desire to gratify his sex
desire is also so intense that he runs the gravest risk of suffering great pain and
debility with social diseases. AIDS (Acquired Immunity Deficiency Syndrome), the present
dreaded disease which is taking a very heavy toll of human life in the West, is the latest
severe penalty man is paying for his unrestrained greed for sensuality. The plight of
modern man can be illustrated by the traditional simile of the ant fallen in the pot of
honey, bogged down and drowning in the very pleasures he is trying to enjoy.
Just as much as we can become
fettered by greed, so we can also get trapped by dislike and hatred. Our aversion is
aroused by unpleasant sense stimuli. The stronger the aversion, the more tenaciously we
become fettered to the unpleasant object. Let us take an example. Suppose we have seen a
disgusting object just before or during a meal. Our aversion may grow so strong that we
will reject even the most delicious food. If we see a worm in a bean curry, our aversion
to it may even make us give up eating beans altogether, for each time we see beans we
would be reminded of the unpleasant experience. Let us take another example from auditory
experience. If somebody abuses us in front of a gathering, we would indeed get very angry
with the abuser. This incident would come to our mind often and each time it came up we
would experience anger. When we recall the abuse over and over and inject negative
emotions of anger and hatred into this memory, we should know that a fetter has been
formed.
By these obsessions by greed and
hatred generated through the instrumentality of the senses, man's freedom of activity is
limited and demarcated. He becomes like an animal tethered to a post by a rope, with its
range of activity limited by the length of the rope. Here egoism is like the post, as we
are all tied to the idea of self or "I". The rope stands for desire or aversion,
for the stronger the idea of self, the more selfish we become, and the more selfish we
become, the stronger grow our desires, likes, and dislikes. So it goes on like a vicious
circle. Let us work out the simile in greater detail: when the rope of desire is strong,
the rope itself becomes short, restricting man's freedom of activity proportionally. The
man with a very strong sense of ego is like the animal who is smothered by the tightness
and the shortness of the rope. The nature of this desire-rope is such that when negative
emotions of likes and dislikes are weak, the rope itself is not only weakened but also
lengthened, giving the human animal greater freedom of activity. When negative emotions
become weak, positive emotions such as love and compassion emerge, expanding man's scope
of freedom. The entire message of the Dhamma can be summarized as a method of rescuing
human beings from the trammels of egocentricity, negative emotions, and ignorance, and
granting them complete and unlimited freedom. In the language of our simile, it is like
cutting the rope and uprooting the post to which the animal is tied.
The suttas also speak of another
human tendency with regard to sense pleasures: dwelling on past sensual pleasures while
even neglecting to enjoy present pleasures. The past sense objects have already passed
away and changed, but we become attached to our memories of them and thus experience
anguish. Another trap we fall into because of our enjoyment of sense objects is the
generation of the three types of conceit. When we think that we have a greater share of
sensual pleasures than others, we develop a superiority complex (seyyamana); by
considering ourselves equal to others, we develop the equality complex (sadisamana);
and by thinking of ourselves as being less fortunate than others in the enjoyment of sense
pleasures, we develop the inferiority complex (hinamana). Thus, by using the
measuring rod of sense pleasures to quantify status, we become more and more self-centered
and suffer the consequences of all possible complexes. therefore the Buddha calls sense
pleasures the "snare of Mara," the Evil One.
A sutta in the Salayatana Samyutta
explains the situation from a different angle. When the sense faculties are unrestrained,
the mind gets corrupted, wallowing in the enjoyment of sense objects. Such a corrupt mind
does not find pamojja, delight in those higher noble pursuits which elevate the
mind.
When this pamojja, or
spiritual delight is absent, pious joy (piti) is also absent. When pious joy is
missing there is no passaddhi, physical and mental relaxation. He who is not
relaxed, lives in tension, frustration, and misery. This is what is called in Pali dukkha,
"suffering." Thus suffering is traced to non- restraint in the sense
faculties.
Looking at the problem from another
perspective, the Salayatana Samyutta traces the origin of the world to sense experience.
Depending on the sense faculties and sense objects there arises sense consciousness. The
convergence of these three factors -- sense faculties, sense objects and sense
consciousness -- is called contact (phassa). Contact generates feelings (phassapaccaya
vedana). In other words, if the object is delightful we experience pleasure in making
contact with it. Feelings give rise to craving (vedanapaccaya tanha) as we tend to
desire more and more of the pleasant feelings. Craving generates clinging (tanhapaccaya
upadanam), when we try to possess the objects we crave for. Clinging nurtures the
growth of personal factors (upadanapaccaya bhavo), which is turn causes birth (jati).
Birth brings in its wake all the ills of old age, death, grief, lamentation, etc. This is
called the arising of the world. Thus we construct our own private worlds through the
instrumentality of our sense faculties.
All this material goes to show that
we are trapped to samsara through the domination of our senses. If we allow them
free rein, we allow them to control us. Bondage and suffering are proportionate to the
extent that we allow our sense faculties to dominate us. If we desire freedom and
happiness for ourselves we have to subjugate the senses and make them our servants.
Understanding and Managing Stress
Stress is a term adopted from engineering science by
psychology and medicine. Simply defined, stress in engineering means force upon an area.
As so many forces are working upon us in the modern age, and we find it extremely
difficult to cope under so much pressure, stress is called the "disease of
civilization." Philip Zimbardo in his Psychology and Life traces four
interrelated levels at which we react to the pressures exerted upon us from our
environment. The four are: the emotional level, the behavioral level, the physiological
level, and the cognitive level. the emotional responses to stress are sadness, depression,
anger, irritation, and frustration. The behavioral responses are poor concentration,
forgetfulness, poor interpersonal relations, and lowered productivity. The physiological
responses consist of bodily tensions, which may lead to headaches, backaches, stomach
ulcers, high blood pressure, and even killer diseases. At the cognitive level one may lose
self-esteem and self-confidence, which leads to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.
At worst such a person may even end up committing suicide.
In order to understand stress let us
consider the various environmental factors which exert pressure on modern man. In this
atomic age the very survival of the species is threatened. Nuclear war threatens every
single human being on earth, irrespective of whether one lives in a country with nuclear
weapons or not. Population explosion threatens man with severe food shortages; at present
even a large segment of human population is undernourished while still others are dying of
starvation and malnutrition. Environmental pollution causes severe health hazards and
mental and physical retardation. Unemployment among the skilled is a growing global
problem. The pace of life has become so hectic that man is simply rushing from one task to
another without any relaxation. This is really paradoxical in an age when labor-saving
devices are freely available and are in use to an unprecedented degree. Competition for
educational and employment opportunities is so severe that it has contributed to a fair
share to increase the rate of suicide. Enjoyment of sense pleasures has grown so obsessive
that it has become like drinking salt water to quench thirst. Constant stimulation of the
senses is today considered a necessity, and thus pocket radios with earphones, chewing
gum, and cosmetics are marketed everywhere. Sense stimulation goes on unrestrained but
satiation is far from achieved. It is no wonder that man, caught up in all this, is
terribly confused and frustrated, and his life is intolerably stressful. This is the
situation Buddhism describes as "tangles within and tangles without, people are
enmeshed in tangles."
While the above observations were
made from the point of view of modern studies and contemporary conditions, Buddhism makes
similar observations from a psychological perspective. Man experiences stress and
suffering because of five psychological states which envelop his whole personality. They
are called nivarana in the Pali language, meaning hindrances. They hinder happiness
and overcloud man's vision of himself, his environment and the interaction between the
two. The thicker and more opaque these hindrances, the greater the stress and suffering
man experiences. The thinner and more sparse these hindrances, the less his suffering with
a corresponding increase in happiness. These five hindrances are the desire for sensual
pleasures, anger, indolence, worry and doubt. The Pali Canon illustrates the effect of
these hindrances with the help of five eloquent similes. The mind overpowered by the
desire for sense pleasures is compared to colored water which prevents a true reflection
of a thing on the water. Thus a man obsessed with the desire for sense pleasures is unable
to get a true perspective of either himself or other people or his environment. The mind
oppressed by anger is compared to boiling water which cannot give an accurate reflection.
A man overpowered by anger is unable to discern an issue properly. When the mind is in the
grip of indolence it is like moss covered water: light cannot even reach the water and a
reflection is impossible. The lazy man does not even make an effort at correct
understanding. When worried the mind is like wind-tossed turbulent water, which also fails
to give a true reflection. The worried man, forever restless, is unable to make a proper
assessment of an issue. When the mind is in doubt it is compared to muddy water placed in
darkness which cannot reflect an image well. Thus all the five hindrances deprive the mind
of understanding and happiness and cause much stress and suffering.
Buddhism puts forward a methodical
plan of action for the gradual elimination of stress and the increase of happiness and
understanding. The first step recommended in this plan is the observance of the Five
Precepts comprising the abstention from killing, stealing, illicit sex, falsehood and
intoxicants. Stress is greatly enhanced by guilt, and these precepts help man to free his
conscience of the sense of guilt. The Dhammapada says the evil-doer suffers here
and hereafter; on the other hand, the man who does good deeds rejoices here and
hereafter.
Buddhism firmly believes that evil
increases stress while good increases happiness. In addition to the observance of the Five
Precepts throughout life, Buddhism advocates the periodical observance of the Eight
Precepts by laymen. These additional precepts attempt to train man for leading a simple
life catering to one's needs rather than one's greeds. A frugal mode of life where wants
are few and are easily satisfied is highly extolled in Buddhism. It is the avaricious and
the acquisitive mentality that is responsible for so much stress that we experience.
The next step in the process of
training is the control of the sense faculties. When our sense faculties are uncontrolled
we experience severe strain. We have to first understand what is meant by being
uncontrolled in the sense faculties. When a person sees a beautiful form with his eyes, he
gets attracted to it; when he sees an unpleasant object, he gets repelled by it. Similarly
with the other senses too. Thus the person who has no control over his senses is
constantly attracted and repelled by sense data, as during waking life sense data keep on
impinging on his sense faculties constantly. When pulled in different directions by sense
stimuli, we become confused and distressed.
Our sense faculties have different
spheres of activity and different objects, and as each sense faculty is a lord in its own
sphere, and as they can severally and collectively dominate man, they are called in Pali indriyas,
meaning "lords" or "masters." If we allow the sense faculties to
dominate us, we get terribly confused. If we assert ourselves and control our sense
faculties, we can have unalloyed pleasure (avyasekasukha), so called because this
pleasure is uncontaminated by defilements. It is also called adhicittasukha,
meaning spiritual pleasure. Whereas sense pleasures increase stress, this type of
spiritual pleasure reduces stressfulness and increases peace of mind and
contentment.
The third step in the management of
stress is the cultivation of wholesome mental habits through meditation (bhavana).
Just as we look after and nurture our body with proper food and cleanliness, the mind too
needs proper nourishment and cleansing. The mind is most volatile in its untrained state,
but when it is tamed and made more stable it brings great happiness. Buddhism prescribes
two fundamental meditative methods of mind-training called samatha and vipassana,
calm and insight. The former is the method of calming the volatile mind, while the latter
is the method of comprehending the true nature of bodily and mental phenomena. Both
methods are extremely helpful for overcoming stress. The Sama??aphala Sutta
explains with the help of five appropriate similes how meditation reduces the
psychological stress caused by the five hindrances. The man who practices meditation gains
a great sense of relief and it is this sense of unburdening oneself that the similes
illustrate. They are as follows: A man who has raised capital for a business by taking a
loan, prospers in business, pays off the loan and manages his day-to-day affairs with
financial ease. Such a man experiences a great sense of relief. The second simile portrays
a man who has suffered a great deal with a prolonged chronic illness. He gets well at long
last, food becomes palatable to him and he gains physical strength. Great is the relief
such a man experiences. The third simile speaks of the relief a prisoner enjoys after
being released from a long term in jail. The fourth is the slave who gains freedom from
slavery. The fifth simile speaks of a well-to-do man who gets lost in a fearful desert
without food. On coming to a place of safety he experiences great relief. When the stress
caused by the five hindrances is eliminated from the mind, great joy and delight arise
similar to the relief enjoyed by the men described in the similes. The best and most
effective way of overcoming stress is the practice of meditation or mental culture. But as
a prelude to that at least the Five Precepts must be observed.
The cultivation of positive emotions
such as loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), sympathetic joy (mudita),
and equanimity (upekkha) is another means of conquering stress. Strained
interpersonal relations is one of the common causes of stress in household life and in the
workplace. Loving kindness is the positive wholesome attitude one can cultivate
with benefit for oneself and others in all interpersonal relationships. Compassion
is the emotion with which one should regard and help those in distress. Sympathetic joy
is the ability to rejoice in the joy of another. It is difficult for a man of mean
character to entertain this attitude as the joy of another brings jealousy to the mind of
such a person. Where there is jealousy there is no unity, and where there is no unity
there is no progress. The cultivation of these positive emotions stands for both material
and spiritual progress. Equanimity is the attitude to be adopted in the face of the
vicissitudes of life. There are eight natural ways of the world that we have to face in
life. They are gain and loss, fame and lack of fame, praise and blame, happiness and
sorrow. If one trains oneself to maintain an equanimous temperament without being either
elated or dejected in the face of these vicissitudes, one can avoid much stress and lead a
simple life with peace and contentment. We cannot change the world so that it will give us
happiness. But we can change our attitude towards the world so as to remain unaffected by
the stresses exerted by events around us. Buddhism teaches the way to bring about this
wholesome change of attitude.
The Buddhist Attitude to Gain and Honor
The world today has evolved various means of
bestowing honor on individuals whom society recognizes as worthy of being honored. The
Nobel Prize is considered one of the most prestigious, and there are various other prizes
and honorific titles that are bestowed annually or from time to time on distinguished
persons. In the scholarly world the publication of felicitation and commemoration volumes
and the conferment of honorary degrees are the usual methods of honoring academic
celebrities. In society at large we indulge in various devices in the public display of
honor and appreciation. Often we resort to overtly ego-boosting methods. As the public
display of honor and esteem has become such an important phenomena in our social life,
given much publicity over all the media -- the press, radio and television -- it is timely
to pause to understand the Buddhist attitude towards the display and acceptance of such
public honor. The Pali Canon uses terms such as labha, sakkara,siloka, puja
and vandana to mean various expressions of honor, esteem and reverence.
According to Buddhism the presence
of ethical and spiritual qualities is the primary criterion for eligibility for honor. The
Buddha, the Paccekabuddha, the Arahant and the universal monarch rank as the highest
personages who are worthy of honor and respect. Honor paid to those worthy of honor is
listed as a great blessing in the Mahamangala Sutta (puja ca pujaniyanam etam
mangalam uttamam). The Dhammapada (vv. 105-6) declares that honor paid to a
perfected saint is far better than a century spent in the performance of sacrifice. The
same text reiterates that the merit of one who reverences those worthy of honor cannot be
measured (v. 195). In the domestic sphere parents are greatly honored and esteemed. As
they have done so much for the children, toiling through a whole lifetime, they deserve to
be appreciated, honored and looked after by the children. There should be mutual honor and
respect between husband and wife. This quality helps to weave a cohesive relationship to
build a happy home for the rearing of progeny. It is also a healthy age-old custom to
honor and welcome guests as is, for instance, maintained in the Canki Sutta (M. II,
167). Respect shown to elders is also highly commended as is well illustrated by the
parable of the Tittira Jataka (J. I, 218). Thus noble spiritual qualities,
parentage and seniority are recognized as some of the main criteria deserving the display
of honor and respect.
Now let us turn our attention to the
attitude to gain and honor by those who receive them. Since the Buddha's immediate
disciples were monks, who by reason of their religious status regularly received gains and
honor from the laity, it is to be expected that his statements on this subject are
addressed primarily to the monks and their concerns. Moreover, as the monks have committed
themselves fully to the quest for deliverance, the Buddha's advice to them naturally takes
their special vocation into account. However, while recognizing the differences in their
position, lay people can take the Buddha's counsel to the monks as guidelines for their
own attitudes towards gain and honor.
The Pali texts show that it is
possible to adopt one of the following three attitudes: (a) One could eagerly appreciate
and enjoy the honor one receives, even actively seek it. (b) One could turn away and
refuse to accept the honor bestowed. (c) One could be indifferent and entertain an
attitude of equanimity towards such honors. We shall take these one by one for
discussion.
(a) The Mahasaropama Sutta
(M.I, 192) elucidates the appreciative attitude to gain and honor with the help of a
simile. If a monk who has entered the Order enjoys the gain and honor he receives and is
satisfied therewith, he is like a man who, being in search of timber, is satisfied with
the end trimmings of a huge tree. What he looked for is timber, but what he is satisfied
with is just twigs and foliage. Devadatta (J.I, 186) is the classic example of one who
fell into utter ruin by enjoying gain and honor. He had developed psychic powers, and he
utilized these powers for convincing laymen of his spiritual development. The most
influential layman who was thus convinced was Ajatasattu. The unconcealed display of
superhuman powers gave rise to much gain and honor for Devadatta, so much so that in his
utter stupidity he wished to kill the Buddha and usurp Buddhahood, and he enticed
Ajatasattu to kill his father and usurp the kingship. The Buddha pronounced that it is for
Devadatta's utter ruin and downfall that he was endowed with so much gain and honor, just
as the plantain tree beats fruit for its own ruin. (S.II, 241). The Dhammapada
maintains that gain and honor is one thing and the path to the realization of Nibbana is
another. Knowing this clearly a monk should not take delight in gain and honor (Dh. 75).
According to the Milindapanha (p. 377), just as a ship has to withstand various
forces such as the force of strong currents, thunder and whirlpools, even so a monk has to
withstand the forces of gain, honor, fame and homage. If a monk relishes these and gets a
bloated ego, he flounders and sinks just like a wrecked ship. The Milindapanha (p.
377) takes another simile from naval experience. A ship's anchor is able to hold a ship
fast without letting it drift along, even in very deep waters, even so a monk must remain
anchored to his purpose with great strength of character without letting the gain and
honor that comes in the wake of virtue carry him adrift. It is no doubt the duty of the
layman to honor and respect a virtuous monk, and also to provide him with the requisites.
It is the responsibility of the monk to maintain a sane balanced attitude, without
becoming elated. Buddhism maintains that it is difficult for a man of mean spiritual
development to resist the enjoyment of gain and honor (sakkaro kapurisena dujjaho,
Thag. 1053). There is the great danger of spiritual erosion when a man indulges and basks
in the glory of fame and honor. One develops a bloated ego and boastfulness creeps into
his character in the most surreptitious ways. Such men also develop contemptuous attitudes
towards others who do not get so much honor. The Labhasakkara Samyutta
sarcastically compares him to the dung beetle who entertains contempt towards other dung
beetles for having less dung. The Anangana Sutta (M. I, 29-30) shows the abhorrence
and disgust towards a monk who undertakes the religious life and difficult ascetic
practices for the sake of public generosity and popularity. Such a monk is compared to one
who places the carcass of a snake or a dog in a beautifully polished brand new metal bowl.
The bowl of higher life (brahmacariya) is not meant for storing carcass-like
immoral intentions.
Monks are advised in the most
emphatic terms to guard against taking delight in gain and honor. The Labhasakkara
Samyutta works out a number of similes in great detail to illustrate the point (S. II,
226-7). A young tortoise who defied the elders' advice is shot with a splinter to which a
string is attached and he is bound to be caught by the hunter in no time. The hunter in
the simile is none other than Mara himself. The splinter is gain, honor and fame. The
string attached to the splinter is the monk's attachment to gain and honor. Again, gain
and honor are compared to a bait which greedy monks might swallow to be utterly ruined in
the hands of the trapper Mara.
(b) Now let us turn to the
attitude of the monk who refuses gain and honor. Mahakassapa was an eminent monk who
eschewed gain and honor, and found delight in helping the poor to earn merit by going to
them for alms. Once the Buddha saw him begging his alms in a locality where
poverty-stricken weavers lived, in spite of gods trying to procure for him a fine meal. On
this occasion the Buddha gave expression to an inspired utterance (Udana, p.11) in
appreciation of Mahakassapa's simplicity. Once a famous householder named Citta was
impressed by the explanation of a knotty doctrinal point by a monk named Isidatta in a
great assembly. Citta invited Isidatta to reside in the locality and promised him
hospitality with all requisites. Isidatta seized the first opportunity to quietly leave
the locality without informing Citta (S. IV, 286-8). Such was the scrupulous reticent
behavior of those who understood the pernicious nature of gain and honor.
(c) Generally the Buddha and
Arahants do not fight shy of gain and honor. They face it with the same equanimity as they
face loss and blame. The Maha Govinda Sutta (D. II, 223) records that gods rejoice
in the Buddha because of his attitude to gain and honor. The Buddha has received gain and
fame which a king would long to have, but with no trace of elation whatsoever he fares
along partaking of only the basic requisites. The gods declare that there was never a
teacher of such calibre before. The lotus, though born in the water, remains unsullied
above the water. Similarly the buddha and Arahants rise uncontaminated above the mundane
conditions of family, prestige, gain, fame, and reverence (Milinda, p.375).
"The Unique Ones (asamasama) are worshipped by gods and men. But they relish
no honor. This is the norm of Buddhas" (Milinda, p.95). Cullasabhadda, an upasika,
observes that while the world is elated and depressed by gain and loss respectively, the
true monks maintain an equanimous attitude in the face of both.
Buddha declares that he has
personally known, seen and understood (samam natam samam dittam samam
viditam,Itivuttaka, p.74) that beings who have been overwhelmed (pariyadinnacitta)
by gain and honor, and also those who are obsessed by the lack of gain and honor, at the
disintegration of the body are born in states of woe. The desire for honor and recognition
is so insinuative that even normally upright individuals can succumb to it. The Buddha
says that there are some who would not stoop so low as to tell a deliberate lie for the
sake of silver and gold, a beauty queen, parents, children or even life, but who would do
so to gain honor and prestige. So vicious and pernicious are the snares of gain and honor
(S. II, 234, 243). Except Arahants, those of the highest order who have reached the state
of akuppa cetovimutti (S. II, 239) or unshakable mental emancipation, all those of
lesser spiritual development are said to be vulnerable in this respect. It is no wonder
that gain and honor is a powerful member of the army of Mara (Sn. 438-9). It should be
recognized by all those who value spiritual progress as a disaster come in the guise of a
blessing.
Livelihood and Development
Right livelihood (samma ajiva) is the fifth
factor in the Noble Eightfold Path. As a method of earning one's living is important to
every human being, whether a member of the clergy or a layman, the correct understanding
of right livelihood is crucial. For a monk, complete dedication to the higher life
constitutes right livelihood. He then is rightly entitled to be supported by public
generosity. In this essay we shall confine ourselves to an inquiry into the concept of
right livelihood for the layman.
Right livelihood implies that one
has to avoid a wrong means of earning a living, known as miccha ajiva in Pali. This
includes trades which are directly or indirectly injurious to others, be they animal or
human, such as trade in meat, liquor, poison, weapons and slaves. These are contrary to
the basic five precepts which all lay Buddhists are expected to abide by. In the world
today these trades, except perhaps the slave trade, are flourishing industries, and much
of the revenue to governments comes from these industries. This shows to what an extent
wrong livelihood is prevalent in the world today.
Even a blameless means of living can
become blameworthy if practiced with inordinate greed and dishonesty. If a doctor in
private practice makes mints of money exploiting his patients, he is guilty of wrong
livelihood even though medicine itself is a noble profession. A vegetable dealer who
cheats in weights and measures is similarly guilty of wrong livelihood. Honest scrupulous
service rendered without exploiting the public is considered an essential feature of right
livelihood.
Buddhism upholds the quality of
having few wants (appicchata) and the ability to be satisfied with little (santutthi)
as great virtues. One has to practice these virtues not only in consumerism but in
production too; in the modern world, however, these virtues have been totally lost sight
of in both these spheres. Therefore governments as well as the private sector aim at ever
increasing development. Such development, however, has no limit. Each time a target has
been reached, the limit to possible growth recedes further like a mirage. More and more is
produced, more and more is consumed. There is no satiation with development, nor with
consumerism. This is a limitless race in a limited world with limited resources. Therefore
mankind has to learn that the concept of development as it is understood today cannot go
on forever, it is logically and practically impossible.
Nature seems to set its own limits
to this process of escalated growth. It appears that there are biological, psychological,
social and ecological limits to growth. The physical constitution of man seems to revolt
against this limitless growth. There is an array of diseases man readily succumbs to today
related to overconsumption and overindulgence. There are pressure-related diseases too,
which affect both the human body and the human mind. Present-day development taxes man's
endurance enormously and he becomes a psychological wreck due to the pressures of work,
competition and maintaining standards. Interpersonal relationships have become
superficial, brittle and sour, and this seems to be a sign that society cannot withstand
the weight of its material development. In the external world too there are unequivocal
signs which portend impending catastrophe unless man changes his course of action. There
is air, water and land pollution everywhere, and this is extremely injurious not only to
human life but to all forms of life in this planet. These are nature's ways of expressing
her disapproval of the methods and rate of production and consumption man has chosen
today.
Agriculture is recognized in
Buddhism as a noble means of making a living, but what has happened in this sphere?
Prompted by population pressures, and encouraged by the ever-expanding vistas of
scientific knowledge, traditional methods of tilling the land have given way to mechanized
industrial agriculture. Vast acres are plowed by machines; chemical fertilizers are
applied freely; weedicides, insecticides and pesticides are used indiscriminately; and
large harvests are gathered. More and more research is going on in agricultural
engineering to produce better seeds which promise higher yields. Though production has
increased, prices remain at a constant high level. In some countries when the price level
threatens to go down due to overproduction, the products are methodically destroyed or
dumped into the sea despite the fact that large masses of people in the world today are
undernourished and some are actually starving to death. It is blatantly clear that the
whole industrialized agricultural policy is prompted by inordinate greed and it is far
from right livelihood.
From the Buddhist point of view this
whole system is wrong. On the one hand it has resulted in the erosion of moral and human
values. It has deprived man of sympathy for his fellow sentient beings as is evident from
the large-scale use of insecticides. Economic gain seems to be the only criterion by which
man is prompted to action. Blinded by short-term economic gain, man seems to turn a blind
eye to the long-term repercussions of his aggressive policies on this planet. In the wake
of the avaricious and aggressive industrialization, the crime rate has risen to an
unprecedented degree, and this is a clear index to man's moral degeneration. On the other
hand, the natural ecological balance of the earth has been disturbed to an alarming
degree. Chemical pollution of land and water has affected bacteria, insects and fish.
While some of these forms of life useful to man have died or are dying, others, especially
insects dangerous to man have become resistant to insecticides. As more and more effective
chemicals are produced, these creatures become immune to them and the vicious circle goes
on without any practical solution in sight. The natural fertility and the organic balance
of the soil also diminish as more and more chemical fertilizers are applied throughout the
years and thus a vicious circle gets formed there too.
All this evidence clearly shows that
man cannot dominate and subjugate nature. In the long run nature emerges triumphant and
man becomes the loser. Instead man must learn to co-operate with nature. Here we are
reminded of an admonition given by the Buddha that in amassing wealth man must exploit
nature as a bee collects pollen. The bee harms neither the beauty of the flower nor its
fragrance, similarly man must not pollute or rob nature of its richness, beauty and its
rejuvenating and replenishing capacity. This is the real implication of right livelihood
when it comes to the utilization of natural resources.
It should be reiterated that the
whole modern concept of development, which seems to have nothing short of the sky itself
as the limit, is severely antithetical to Buddhist values. Buddhism sets the limit at the
other end: it advocates that we feed our needs and not our greeds. Man needs the basic
comforts of food, clothing, shelter and medicine. It is the responsibility of the rulers
to provide avenues of employment so that the average man can afford to have these needs
satisfied with a fair degree of comfort. As man is naturally prone to greed, Buddhism
emphasizes the value of having few wants (appicchara). Contentment (santutthi)
is also a much valued virtue in Buddhism. Care is taken to see that these virtues do not
degenerate into apathy and cause social stagnation. Buddhism encourages the layman to be
industrious, to forge ahead in his chosen blameless occupation (utthanasampada).
Wealth earned by sheer perseverance, by the sweat of one's brow, is highly praised as well
gotten righteous wealth. It is even recommended that a layman should invest half of his
earnings for improvement of his industry. Laymen are also exhorted to save (arakkhasampada)
their hard earned money, and to lead a comfortable life consonant with earning capacity,
avoiding both extremes of miserliness and extravagance/over-indulgence. thus the tension
between having few wants (appicchata) and contentment (santutthi) on the one
hand, and industriousness (arakkhasampada) on the other, helps to keep society at a
practically comfortable level of development which can be sustained for a long time. When
these economic ideas are reinforced with the other moral values inculcated by Buddhism, a
stable society with harmonious interpersonal relations can be expected.
The modern concept of large-scale
industries and factories also does not agree with the Buddhist concept of right
livelihood. These large industries and mechanized labor have made a few people enormously
rich and thrown millions of employable people out of employment. Thus wealth gets
concentrated among a few factory owners and businessmen while millions can barely eke out
an existence. Maldistribution of wealth is regarded in Buddhism as a social evil which
paves the way to crime and revolution. Moreover machines have robbed man of his creativity
and left him terribly frustrated. This may be one of the reasons why the youth of today
have turned to drugs to find an easy escape route.
The concept of right livelihood
works with the notion that man is the central concern in economy as producer as well as
consumer, not the profit made in the process of products changing hands. The skills and
talents of the producer should be enhanced in the process of production and he should have
the satisfaction derived from his output. The producer, not an employer above him or a
middleman, should get a fair return commensurate with his labor and sufficient to afford
him a decent living. The consumer, on the other hand, should get quality and quantity for
what he pays. In sharp contrast to this ideology, the profit made by the employer is the
central concern today: both the producer and the consumer are subservient to the profit
motive. Therefore right livelihood would opt for small-scale industries which would
satisfy the creative instinct of man and the basic needs of many more people, and would
also ensure a more equitable distribution of wealth in society. It is better to have a
large number of skilled cobblers than a well equipped mechanized shoe factory.
As right livelihood is a part and
parcel of the Noble Eightfold Path, when it is rightly practiced it leads to the
elimination of greed, hatred and delusion (S. V, 5). Just as the river Ganges is inclined
towards the east, he who practices the Noble Eightfold Path is inclined towards Nibbana.
Thus the correct understanding of right livelihood is essential for the Buddhist layman
who is bent on his spiritual welfare.
Facing Death Without Fear
Death is the only certain thing in life. It is also
the thing for which we are least prepared. We plan and prepare for various other things --
examinations, weddings, business transactions, building houses -- but we can never be
certain whether our plans will materialize according to our wish. Death, on the other
hand, can come any minute, sooner or later; it is the most certain event in life. Just as
the mushroom raises itself from the ground carrying a bit of earth on its hood, so every
living being brings with himself the certainty of death from the moment of his
birth.
The Anguttara Nikaya (IV, 136)
illustrates the uncertainty and the evanescent nature of life with the help of a few
evocative similes. Life is compared to a dew drop at the tip of a blade of grass: it can
drop off any moment and even if it does not fall off, it evaporates as soon as the sun
comes up. Life is also as fleeting as a bubble of water formed by the falling rain or a
line drawn on the water. The text points out that life rushes towards death incessantly
like a mountain stream rushing down without stopping. The Dhammapada compares the
fragility of the body to foam (v 46) and to a clay water pot (v 40). Thus with various
similes the uncertainty of life and the certainty of death are emphasized over and over
again in the Buddhist texts.
It is accepted as a general truth
that everybody fears death (sabbe bhayanti maccuno -- Dh 129). We fear death
because we crave for life with all our might. It is also a fact that we fear the unknown.
We know least about death, therefore we fear death for a duality of reasons. It seems
reasonable to conjecture that the fear of death, or the fear of harm to life, lurks at the
root of all fear. Therefore each time we become frightened we either run away from the
source of fear or fight against it, thus making every effort to preserve life. But we can
do so only so long as our body is capable of either fighting or running away from danger.
But when at last we are on the deathbed face to face with approaching death, and the body
is no longer strong enough for any protest, it is very unlikely that we will accept death
with a mental attitude of resignation. We will mentally try hard to survive. As our
yearning for life (tanha) is so strong, we will mentally grasp (upadana)
another viable place, as our body can no longer support life. Once such a place, for
example the fertilized ovum in a mother's womb, has been grasped, the psychological
process of life (bhava) will continue with the newly found place as its basis.
Birth (jati) will take place in due course. This seems to be the process that is
explained in the chain of causation as: craving conditions grasping, grasping conditions
becoming or the process of growth, which in turn conditions birth. Thus the average man
who fears death will necessarily take another birth as his ardent desire is to
survive.
Let us probe a little further into
the process of death, going from the known to the unknown. We know that in normal life,
when we are awake, sense data keep on impinging on our sense faculties. We are kept busy
attending to these sense data, rejecting some, selecting some for greater attention, and
getting obsessed with still other things. This is an ongoing process so long as we are
awake. In the modern age man is reaching out and seeking more and more sense stimulation.
The popularity of the portable radio with or without earphones, chewing gum, cosmetics and
television is a clear indication of the present trend for more and more sense stimulation.
By all this we have become alienated from ourselves; we do not know our own real nature,
or the real nature of our mind to be more precise. Moreover, we go about our business in
social life wearing masks appropriate for each occasion. We often do not show our true
feelings of jealousy, greed, hatred, pride, or selfishness. We hide them in socially
accepted ways of formalized verbal expressions such as congratulations, thank you, deepest
sympathies. But there are times when our negative emotions are so acute that they come
into the open in the form of killing, stealing, quarreling, backbiting, and so forth. But
generally we try to keep these venomous snakes of negative emotions inhibited.
Now let us see what happens at the
moment of death. We believe that death is a process and not just a sudden instantaneous
event. When the senses lose their vitality one by one and they stop providing stimulation,
the inhibitions too fall away. The masks we have been wearing in our various roles get
cast off. We are at last face to face with ourselves in all our nakedness. At that moment
if what we see are the venomous snakes of negative emotions of hatred, jealousy, etc., we
would be laden with guilt, remorse and grief. It is very likely that our memories too will
become quite sharp, as all the sensory disturbances and inhibitions which kept them
suppressed have fallen off. We may remember our own actions committed and omitted during
our lifetime with unpretentious clarity. If they are morally unwholesome we would be
guilty and grief stricken (S. V. 386), but if they are morally wholesome we would be
contented and happy. The Abhidhammattha Sangaha speaks of the presentation of kamma
or kammanimitta at the mind door on the advent of death. This seems to be the
revival in memory of an actual action or action veiled in symbols at the onset of death.
It is said that rebirth will be determined by the quality of thoughts that surface in this
manner.
Death is as natural an event as
nightfall; it is but one of the manifestations of the law of impermanence. Though we
dislike it immensely we have to orient ourselves to accept its inevitability, as there is
no escape therefrom. The Buddhist texts advocate the cultivation of the mindfulness of
death often so that we are not taken unawares when the event does take place. To face
death peacefully one has to learn the art of living peacefully with one's own self as well
as with those around. One method of doing so is to remember the inevitability of death,
which will deter one from unwholesome behavior. The practice of meditation is the best
technique which will enable one to live peacefully with oneself and others.
The practice of loving-kindness (mettabhavana)
is an effective method of meditation. One of its special advantages is the ability to face
death undeluded (asammulho kalam karoti).
In one sutta (A. III, 293) the
Buddha explains how to prepare for a peaceful death. One has to organize one's life and
cultivate an appropriate attitude for this purpose. The instructions given there are as
follows:
(1) One should not be fond of a busy life involved
in various activities.
(2) One should not be fond of being
talkative.
(3) One should not be fond of
sleeping.
(4) One should not be fond of having
too many companions.
(5) One should not be fond of too
much social intercourse.
(6) One should not be fond of
daydreaming.
Another sutta (A. I, 57-8) explains that if one
avoids unwholesome wicked activities through body, speech and mind, one need not fear
death. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta (D. II, 85-6) categorically states that those who
are evil in character face death with delusion while the virtuous face death free from
delusion. Thus if one leads a simple virtuous life one need not fear death.
Once Mahanama Sakka (S. V. 369)
disclosed to the Buddha that he was worried where he would be reborn if he were to meet
with a violent death in a road accident. The Buddha explained that those who have
cultivated the qualities of faith, virtue, learning, generosity and wisdom for a long time
need not entertain such fears. To illustrate the position further the Buddha employs a
simile. If a pot of oil or ghee is broken in deep water the potsherds will sink to the
riverbed and the oil or ghee will rise to the surface of the water. Similarly in such a
tragic situation the body would be discarded and may be devoured by vultures and jackals,
but the mind will rise and progress upwards.
The account of the illness of
Nakula's father (A. III, 295) is another interesting episode regarding the Buddhist
attitude to death. Once Nakula's father was seriously ill and his wife noticed that he was
fretful and anxious. She advised him that death with anxiety is painful and is denounced
by the Buddha. Therefore he must compose himself. Comforting him, she said that he might
be worried about the family income and the task of bringing up the children after his
death. She assured him that she was capable of spinning and weaving and thus she could
provide for the family and bring up the children. He may be anxious that she would remarry
after his death. She said that he knows just as well as she that she has never been
unfaithful to him ever since they were married at the age of sixteen, and she pledged that
she would remain loyal to him even after his death. Perhaps he may worry about her
spiritual development and she assured him that she would continue to be earnest in her
spiritual welfare. Therefore he must face death, if need there be, with no anxiety. Such
was her advice to her husband who was fatally ill. It is said that he regained self-
composure and thereby good health too. The matter was later reported to the Buddha, who
commended Nakula's mother for her wisdom and composure.
The suttas also discuss the
advantages of the regular contemplation of death (A. IV, 46-48; S. V, 344,408). The mind
gets divested from the love of life, and being intoxicated with the zest of life, men
commit various atrocities. That can be prevented by the habit of practicing mindfulness of
death. If we only remember that we have not come to this world to stay forever, we would
take care to lead much better lives. If, when we take stock, we find wicked negative
emotions such as lust, hatred and jealousy in us, we should immediately take steps to
eradicate them as we would try to put out the flames if our head were to catch fire (A.
IV, 320).
Thus the Buddhist texts tirelessly
reiterate the positive benefits of the regular contemplation of the inevitability of
death. It helps one to lead a more wholesome life and also to face death, the one and only
certain event in life, with calm composure and fearless confidence.
The Human Body
When alive the human body is the most precious and
the most mysterious object in the whole world. We regard it as beautiful and spend much
time, energy, and money to make it more beautiful. We regard it as an instrument for
pleasure and spend nearly all our lives in procuring objects of pleasure. We assume it is
a vital part of ourself. It would be useful to discuss the validity of these attitudes and
assumptions from the Buddhist point of view.
The human body is the most intricate
machine in the world. Each human body is unique not only in appearance but also in its
biochemical structure, sensitivity of sense faculties, disease resistance, disease
susceptibility, etc., and hereditary laws alone are incapable of offering a satisfactory
explanation. Buddhism holds that the body and its sense faculties have been so structured
as the effect of former kamma. From the dawn of civilization man has tried to understand
the mystery of the human personality and he has given rise to various sciences and
religions. In one sutta the Buddha says that within this fathom-long sentient human body
is found the whole world, its origin, its cessation and the path leading to its cessation.
In a way this means that the world of experience is within the human body. In another
sense it means that if one were to understand the mystery of the human body, that would
amount to understanding the mystery of the world. In fact the external world is nothing
but what we get to know through the instrumentality of our sense faculties. If we
understand the sense faculties and sense data, we have understood everything.
The relationship of the body and the
mind is most elusive. According to the Sama??aphala Sutta this relationship can be
understood only after the attainment of the fourth jhana. The adept can then see
consciousness established in the physical constitution just as one can see a colored
thread running through the aperture of a transparent gem. Another sutta explains the
interdependency of body and mind through the simile of two bundles of reeds placed against
one another supporting each other. Emotional changes in the mind affect body chemistry,
and fluctuations in body chemistry affect the mind. As a gross example we can take the
negative emotion of anger. Anger triggers off glandular secretions which alter body
chemistry considerably to bring about changes such as trepidation, sweating, feeling hot,
etc. On the other hand, changes in body chemistry produced, for instance by the intake of
alcohol or drugs affect the mind to bring about appropriate mood changes, euphoria and
hallucinations. According to a sutta in the Anguttara Nikaya (A. IV, 385 f.) all thoughts
are translated into sensations (sabbe dhamma vedanasamosarana). This shows the
extent to which the body is influenced by the mind. Buddhism has clearly recognized this
interdependency and utilized that knowledge in its path to liberation. The body is
disciplined through morality (sila) and is thus maintained at a reasonably healthy
biochemical level. The mind is disciplined with meditation (bhavana) to produce
healthy psychological changes and thereby reinforce a more healthy biochemical composition
of the body. This process goes on until the attainment of Arahantship, when the
biochemical composition has undergone such a radical, irreversible change that an Arahant
is said to be incapable of certain physiological functions which are antithetical to
spiritual development but normal in average human beings.
Though the sentient human body is
most precious, no precious material goes into its composition. It is precious because,
through its instrumentality, man is able to probe into the deepest mysteries of the
universe and of himself, into the meaning of life and the enigma of death. When we stand
by the ocean in the evening twilight and gaze at the vast ocean as far as the horizon, or
at the star-studded firmament receding into infinity as far as the eye can see, we are
awe-struck by the magnitude of the universe. Compared to that man is but an infinitesimal
speck of dust in size. But when we pay attention to the potentialities of man, it is he
who can even conceive of this mighty universe, it is he who can unravel its mysteries.
Though part and parcel of the universe, though subject to natural cosmic laws, man has the
capacity to transcend the natural material world and can even reach Buddahood. Therefore
man is supreme and the sentient human frame is precious.
It is true that we generally look at
the human body as a thing of beauty. We speak of beautiful eyes, teeth, face, hair, and
figure. But Buddhism looks at the human body from a realistic point of view. The body is a
bag of filth, it is full of impurities. The Buddhist texts dealing with the thirty-two
parts of the body spell out in detail its foul material constituents. If we only pause a
moment to consider attentively the state of the face prior to a wash in the morning, we
can gain a fair idea of the body's repulsive nature. It exudes so much dirt from its major
nine apertures and numerous pores that it needs constant cleaning. Just imagine how
intolerable the body would be if we neglect to clean what it discharges from the outlets
even for a single day, let alone for a long period. Great care has to be taken to keep the
body clean, so that it is not offensive to oneself and others. If no regular cleaning is
done, it can be the home of various parasites, and thus a public nuisance. We have to
understand the real nature and the composition of the body in order to reduce and
eliminate our infatuation with it.
We have to feed the body very
carefully throughout life. However well the body is fed, it grows hungry over and over
again. Hunger is the worst disease says the Dhammapada. There is no end to feeding
the body until death. The stomach is like an open sore which needs careful periodical
dressing. Gross food is but one of the nutriments the body needs according to Buddhism;
contact with the environment (phassa), volition (manosancetana), and
consciousness (vi??ana) are the other three nutriments. All these four forms of
nutriment are essential for the continuance of the body in health. The body also needs to
be protected from heat, cold, rain, injurious germs and external harm. We have to be ever
alert to protect the body from these various sources of external danger. For these reasons
Buddhism says that the body is a source of great anxiety -- bahudukkho ayam kayo.
Great is the hardship man has to undergo just to keep the body viable, clean and
healthy.
The body is endowed with sense
faculties and they are ever in search of pleasure. The eye is in search of pleasant forms,
the ear of pleasant sounds, the nose of pleasant smells, the tongue of pleasant tastes and
the body of pleasant tactiles. Most of our life is spent in the pursuit of these
pleasures. But it remains a fact that the body texture is such that it does not tolerate
excessive pleasure. However desirable pleasure may be, the body falls ill when overloaded
with them. For instance, however palatable rich food may be, when it is taken in excess,
the body becomes a victim of killer diseases. Similarly, excessive indulgence in sex
causes social diseases, of which the most dreaded today is AIDS. Acquired Immunity
Deficiency Syndrome, for which a cure has not yet been found. Therefore restraint in the
enjoyment of sense pleasures is the best course of conduct for those desirous of health
and long life.
When we look at the body in its
various postures of standing, sitting, walking and lying down, we realize that the body
can tolerate these postures only for a very short time. Even if we are sitting in the most
comfortable seat, we continue to remain in the same position without moving around only
for a short time. Automatically we move about adjusting our limbs to more comfortable
positions in a constant search for pleasure. But pleasure is short- lived; pain raises its
head and we move and adjust ourselves again to eke out a little pleasure. Thus the search
for pleasure goes on and we delude ourselves saying that we enjoy life. The basic truth is
that the body is a source of misery, but we prefer to turn a blind eye to this fact and
cling desperately to fleeting pleasures. The Buddha says that there is no doubt an iota of
pleasure appassada, but the misery is far in excess of this pleasure, bahudukkha.
The body in its various stages of
growth also brings much pain. Birth causes excruciating pain both to mother and babe. The
infant is completely at the mercy of others around it. If its needs are not duly attended
to, it experiences much misery, which it expresses by pitiful cries. Teething is a
significant landmark in the series of growing pains. All attempts to master the various
physical postures contribute their own quota of hardships to infancy. Puberty and
adolescence are also harassed by the growing pains appropriate to those ages. Old age is
particularly notorious for aches and pains. The sense faculties are on the decline, sight
fails, hearing becomes short and other senses too diminish in their acuity. Various joint
pains and body aches become more constant and the body strength ebbs away. Even the Buddha
in his old age said that his body was like an old worn-out cart which could be kept going
only with much repair. He added that he enjoyed physical comfort only when he spent time
in jhanic ecstasy. Such is the nature of the body in old age. We cannot forget that
the body is prone to various diseases during all stages of its growth.
Though the body is thus a source of
great misery we cannot afford to hate it. To have a healthy attitude towards the body we
should avoid both extremes of being infatuated with the body and hating it. We should have
metta, a friendly attitude towards the body. Realistically understanding its
nature, we should avoid misusing it as an instrument only for pleasure. We should be very
careful not to form habits which are injurious to the body, such as smoking, drinking, and
the excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures. The body becomes a prey to self-inflicted
diseases if we fail to cultivate an attitude of friendliness towards it. If we want to
enjoy a reasonably healthy body as a vital part of our self. When we say: "I am tall,
I am fat, I am fair, I am beautiful or ugly," we really mean that the body has these
attributes. But as we keep on using the pronoun "I" we get caught in the
grammatical subject and assume the existence of an ontological subject such as the soul or
the ego. Therefore we establish a relationship of identity and possession with the body.
Thus the body becomes a vital part of the self. The Buddha argues that if the body is
really ours as we assume it is, it should behave according to our wishes. It should remain
young, healthy, beautiful and strong as we always wish it to be. But the body hardly
behaves according to our wishes and we come to grief when it goes against our wishes and
expectations. The Buddha points out that the body really does not belong to us, nor is it
really our self or a part of our self. We should therefore give up craving for it, we
should cease to identify ourselves with it. Giving up craving for the body results in much
happiness and peace. In order to wean ourselves from our habitual identification and
ownership we have to impress the repulsive and alien nature of our bodies into our minds
with deep sensitivity, so that an attitudinal change takes place in us with regard to the
body. Observation of the repulsive and misery-producing nature of our bodies repeatedly,
over and over again, is one sure way of gaining the realistic perspective. This is the
path leading out of misery.
Sensualistic Social Trends and Buddhism in Modern
Times[2]
Causes for Sensualistic Social Trends[3]
Scientific and technological advancement has brought
about widespread changes in the lifestyle of modern man. Changes have been so rapid and
overwhelming during the 20th century, that this century seems to far outweigh all other
centuries put together in this respect. Man's attitudes, values, goals and ideals too have
undergone radical change. Scientific knowledge regarding the nature and evolution of the
universe, man, society, culture and civilization has unsettled many of the old certitudes
and undermined the very basis and authority of the Western theistic religious traditions.
With the loss of respect for authority and tradition, the validity of moral values too
came to be questioned. Ever renewing scientific knowledge, which exposed traditional
beliefs one after another as superstitious or mythical, gave a halo of superiority to
modernity. Nurtured in such an environment, the younger generation became alienated from
the lifestyle of their parents and the age-old generation gap assumed unprecedented
proportions.
While scientific knowledge rendered
man a skeptic alienated from his cultural heritage technology robbed him of his creative
ability. The machine with its vast powers of production reduced man to a button pusher and
threw millions of workers out of employment. Their muscular and creative powers were left
unharnessed, thwarted and frustrated. As a result the indigenous folk arts and crafts of
all nations, which were in fact expressions of sublimated emotions, became almost extinct.
Man in his admiration for creativity and feeble struggle for self-expression has now
become an antique collector.
The next force which completely
overwhelmed modern man was the tyranny of commercialization and advertising. When
production exceeded consumption man had to be persuaded into consuming more, lest trade
suffer with a backlog of unconsumed stockpiles. Deliberate and calculated attempts were
made to change traditional frugality into an ethic of consumption. Mass media were
utilized to convince the people of the virtues and necessity of increasing consumption to
maintain the newly acquired standard of affluent living. Research into motivational and
behavioral psychology betrayed the susceptibilities of man, and advertising agents made
capital by playing upon these weaknesses, namely, man's innate greed for sensual pleasure,
personal property and social prestige. Unleashed as he was from his cultural moorings, and
frustrated as he was in his creative urge, modern man succumbed to the attractive appeals
of mass media and plunged into a life of self-indulgence.
Harmful Effects on Individual and Society
Having thus briefly outlined the main causes
responsible for modern sensualistic social trends, it is useful to glance at the effects
they have produced on the individual and society of today. Venereal diseases have become
rampant; it is reported that there was an increase of 300% within one decade in the United
States. The ever widening field of psychiatry shows that mental health is rapidly
deteriorating. Alcoholism and drug addiction are major health problems. The crime rate is
ever mounting. Bonds of wedlock have become sadly brittle and the divorce rate is
alarmingly high. The family as a viable institution is threatened, according to some
sociologists, with extinction in the not too distant future. Disruption of family life has
affected child life most pathetically. A British report of Health Economics published in
January 1976 informs us that babies are the most common homicide victims in Britain since
the early 1960s. They are battered to death at times of family stress. Teenage drug
addictions and juvenile delinquency have become alarming problems of the day. These social
phenomena are directly related to man's attitude towards sense pleasure and serious
rethinking seems most urgent today if man is to be saved from the imminent danger of self-
destruction through sensuality.
Can Buddhism Help?
Buddhism has been a great civilizing force and a
guiding principle for millions of people during the last twenty-five centuries. It would
be useful to see what light Buddhism sheds on the present chaotic situation, and what
wisdom it offers for self-adjustment under modern conditions and for healthy family and
interpersonal relations. Though criticism is often levelled that Buddhism is a
life-denying ascetic ideal, and that it is antisocial and antipolitical, it should be
remembered that Buddhism embraces in its dispensation not only monks (bhikkhu) and
nuns (bhikkhuni), but also male and female lay followers (upasaka,upasika).
The intellectual and disciplinary training of the laity is as important a concern in
Buddhism as that of the monks. Therefore Buddhism offers a social and a political
philosophy, the goal of which is the creation of a society where human rights are
safeguarded, human enterprise is the key to success, resources are well distributed and
justice reigns supreme. As Trevor Ling too maintains, Buddhism is not just a religion or a
philosophy, it is in fact a whole civilization, a full fledged multi-faceted philosophy of
life designed to meet the secular and spiritual needs of man.[4]
Sensuality and Human Ambitions
According to Buddhism ambitions of man center on the
acquisition of wealth, pleasure, fame, longevity and happiness after death. (A. II,
66-68). Accepting these as human aspirations and goals of human endeavor, Buddhism
advocates a way of life to help man realize these aims. For the danger is ever present
that man in his pursuit of pleasure will in the long run defeat those very aims. Wealth
and sex are two important means of acquiring pleasure. A prudent attitude towards them
would go a long way for the realization of the other three human ambitions as well. As
most of the social ills of today are attributable to the mishandling of these two, a
correct understanding of the Buddhist attitude towards them would be most
profitable.
Wealth
The Buddhist attitude towards wealth is such that it
has never prescribed a ceiling on income. What it has prescribed is that wealth should be
acquired through righteous means and expended also in a righteous manner. Wealth earned by
the sweat of one's brow without harming, deceiving or exploiting others is highly
commended. It is always emphasized that wealth has only instrumental value. It should be
utilized for (a) living in comfort making one's family, parents, dependents and friends
happy, (b) insuring oneself against possible calamities through fire, water, etc., (c)
performing one's duties to relatives, guests and state, and for religio-cultural
activities, and (d) patronizing those engaged in spiritual advancement. According to one's
means, on a large or very small scale, one should try to make the best use of one's
resources in the most righteous manner.
What is deplored in Buddhism is the
excessive acquisitive greed and the hoarding habit. While niggardliness is held in
contempt, frugality is extolled as a virtue. Wastefulness is a deplorable habit and it is
even regarded as anti-social. Once Ananda explained to a king how the monks put the gifts
offered to them to maximum use. When new robes are offered the old ones are taken as
coverlets, the old coverlets are utilized as mattress covers, the former mattress covers
are used as rugs, the old rugs are taken as dusters, the old tattered dusters are kneaded
with clay and used to repair cracked floors and walls (Vin. II, 291). Such was the
Buddhist monks' conscientious use of resources. The same frugality has influenced the
laity too and the famous episode of a wealthy merchant who bade a servant to collect a
drop of ghee off the floor, lest it be wasted, is a very fine example. The same merchant
was so generous that his largesse surprised the recipients (Vin. I, 271). Though frugality
and generosity appear to be incompatible, they are recognized as commendable virtues in
their own right to be cultivated by one and all. When these simple virtues are compared
with the information revealed to us, for instance, by Vance Packard's epochmaking
eye-opener The Waste Makers, one begins to wonder whether sanity and common sense
have left the knowledgeable man of science today. Some investigators estimate that
American consumption of the world's resources within forty years is equal to what mankind
has consumed during the last 4000 years. As the earth's resources are not unlimited, it is
high time that modern man did some re-thinking and cultivated some economical Buddhist
habits at least out of sympathy for posterity. It is true that oceanography opens
unexploited resources to man, but it must be remembered that the ocean too is not
unlimited, whereas man's greed knows no limit nor satiation.
Sex
Buddhism recognizes the sex attraction as a
universal reality. Among animals the sex impulse is regulated by nature and thus their
mating and breeding are seasonal. Among humans there is no such natural mechanism, and man
has by a long process of experiment and adjustment arrived at certain taboos, rules and
regulations to handle his sex drive in a manner appropriate to himself and his fellow
beings. Though these rules differ according to times and place, on the whole they have
helped man to emerge from savagery to civilization.
According to Buddhism monogamy is
the ideal form of marriage, while chastity and fidelity form ideal behavior before
marriage. This alone is not sufficient for success in married life. Mutual confidence (saddha),
morality (sila), self-denial (caga) and prudence (pa??a) are
emphasized as virtues which ensure conjugal happiness and success. In other words, mutual
confidence means dependability, morality implies strength of character, self-denial or the
joy of selfless service to the beloved denotes emotional maturity, and prudence shows
intellectual maturity. These qualities bring the spouses so close to one another, it is
said, that the relationship could persist even after death in a future existence. Nakula's
parents are portrayed in Buddhist literature as an ideal couple who, in their old age,
expressed the wish that their love should survive death. The Buddha replied that the wish
would materialize if the above qualities are equally shared by both partners (A. II,
61-61).
Marital bonds of modern man are so
brittle and fragile because these cohesive emotional forces are lost in sensuality. Much
emphasis is laid on carnal pleasure while personality adjustments and emotional
involvement which call for sacrifices and selflessness respectively, are ignored or
neglected. Though sex is an important basic requirement in marriage, it is certainly not
the be-all and end-all of family life. Indulgence in sex for its own sake never brings
satisfaction, whence fulfillment? The insatiability of lust is disdainfully illustrated in
Buddhist literature by the traditional simile of a dog licking a bone to satisfy hunger.
But sex as an expression of conjugal love is a satisfying emotional experience. If sex was
the only concern, man need not have evolved an institution like the family. Animals too
satisfy their sex instinct, but nothing compared to the human family has evolved in the
animal kingdom. The important function of family life seems to be to teach man a great
moral lesson to overcome his egocentric nature. Man starts life in his mother's womb as
the most selfish parasite. He then passes through the emotional stages of self-love,
conjugal love and parental love. As a mature man and a parent he completely loses himself
in the service of his offspring. His self-denial is such he even relinquishes his personal
possessions, acquired through the toil of a lifetime, in favor of them. Finally he makes
an emotional self- sacrifice when he gets a partner for his child to love and cherish. In
his old age he regards his offspring with equanimity and contentment. This emotional
maturity and fulfillment is utterly impossible if sensuality is regarded as the goal of
married life.
Fame and Longevity
These two ambitions of man depend to a very large
extent, as mentioned earlier, on the manner he handles his wealth and pleasure. Special
mention should be made that liquor, like sensuality, is a great betrayer of all human
ambitions. It has been aptly remarked that a man's conscience is soluble in alcohol.
According to Buddhism both liquor and sensuality destroy man's physical and mental health,
drain his resources, spoil his public image and distort his intellectual capacities (D.
III, 182-184).
Happiness After Death
In this age of material pleasure, man is not much
concerned with a life after death. The Buddhist axiom is that a man reaps what he sows. If
one has led a useful moral life and reached old age with a sense of fulfillment,
contentment and equanimity, one has no regrets. A well-spent blameless life has, according
to Buddhism, happiness beyond the grave. Such a person is said to progress from light to
brighter light (joti joti parayano, A. II, 86).
Sensuality and Intellectual Maturity
Another noteworthy ill effect of self-indulgence is
the inhibition of intellectual capacities. Buddhism emphasizes that obsession with
sensuality prevents clear thinking, distorts vision, clouds issues, inhibits wisdom and
destroys peace of mind. While these observations were made twenty-five centuries ago by
the Buddha, the inhibitory effect of sex on brain activity seems to be indicated quite
independently by medical research on the pineal gland.
In man, the pineal gland is a
pear-shaped midline structure located at the back of the base of the brain. This gland
synthesizes a hormone called melatonin which affects behavior, sleep, brain activity, and
sexual activity such as puberty, ovulation and sexual maturation. While melatonin
stimulates brain activity, it inhibits sexual activity. Again it has been recognized that
light, dark, olfaction, cold, stress and other neural inputs affect the pineal function.
Exposure to light reduces the synthesis of melatonin and depresses pineal weight. On the
other hand light accelerates sexual maturation activity.[5]
It will be useful to compare this
medical information with Buddhist ideology. Buddhism maintains that sense stimuli disturb
mental activity. If the sense doors are well guarded (indriyesu guttadvaro hoti),
i.e. if visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactile inputs are controlled, a
corresponding degree of concentrated mental activity becomes possible. Cittassa
ekaggata or the ability to fix the mind on one point is greatly determined by the
control of the sense faculties. In terms of physiology it seems to mean that such sense
control helps the synthesis of melatonin in the pineal gland, which stimulates brain
activity and retards sexual activity. Thus, with the help of medical research it seems
possible to confirm the buddhist point of view that sensuality inhibits intellectual
maturity.
Sensuality and Culture
According to the Agga??a Sutta, which gives
an account of the evolution of the world and society, the earliest inhabitants of the
earth were mind-made and self-luminous beings who subsisted on joy and moved about in the
sky. After a long time they tasted something extremely flavorsome and were delighted with
this new gustatory sense experience. Craving entered into them and they went on tasting
food in this manner. Consequently their bodies became coarser and coarser; they lost their
radiance and the ability to subsist on joy and to traverse in the sky. (D. III,
84-86).
Now what is important for us here is
not the authenticity of this evolutionary process, but the point that sensual desire has
caused the loss of higher mental and physical capacities which man is supposed to have
once possessed.
The Cakkavattsihanada Sutta
(D. III, 69-74) deals with the problem of social change. As a result of the unequal
distribution of wealth, poverty becomes widespread and moral standards deteriorate
rapidly. With moral degeneration there is a corresponding decrease in physical beauty and
length of life. As time goes on and immorality settles down, society comes under the grip
of three derogatory phenomena, namely, perverted lust (adhammaraga), wanton greed (visamalobha)
and a wrong sense of values (micchadhamma). Disrespect for family, religious and
cultural traditions becomes an accepted social phenomenon. When moral degradation
continues thus a time will come when the life- span is reduced to ten years and the
marriageable age goes down to five. By that time food will undergo so much change that
delicacies such as ghee, butter, honey, etc. will vanish, and what is considered coarse
today will be a delicacy of that time. All concepts of morality will disappear and
language will have no word to denote morality. Immorality will reign supreme with social
sanction. There will be no marriage laws nor kinship, and society will fall into a state
of utter promiscuity, as among animals. Among such humans keen mutual enmity will become
the rule, and they will be overcome by passionate thoughts of killing one another. A world
war will break out and large-scale massacre would be the result. After this mass blood
bath, the few destitutes who are left behind will find solace in each other's company and
they will begin to regard one another with kindly thoughts. With this change of heart
there will be a gradual re-evolution of moral values. Step by step the good life will be
restored, physical beauty will reappear and the life-span will increase. Mental
potentialities too will gradually develop.
Such are the Buddhist ideas of
social change. Society stands or falls with the rise or fall of moral values.
It is noteworthy that some
present-day sociological studies too have revealed that morality and culture are causally
connected. William Stephens observes that primitive tribes have great sexual freedom,
premarital as well as extramarital, when compared with civilized communities which have
tight sex restrictions.[6] Dean Robert Fitch has connected the
decline of the Roman civilization with the deterioration of their sexual morality.[7] The most important contribution in this respect is made by J.D.
Unwin in a study called Sex and Culture.[8] He has
conducted a survey of the sexual behavior and the level of culture of eighty uncivilized
tribes and also those of six known civilizations. He concludes that there is a definite
relationship between permissiveness and primitiveness, and sex restrictions and
civilization. Sexual freedom gives rise to what he calls a zoistic (dead level of
conception) culture where people are born, they satisfy their desire, they die and are
forgotten after the remains are disposed of. They are not able to rationally find out the
causal connection between events. When afflicted by illness, for instance, they resort to
witchcraft and nothing more. When a certain degree of sex restriction, occasional,
premarital, or post-nuptial, is present, the result is a manistic culture where ancestors
are worshipped at times of crisis, but without a definite place of worship. Strict sex
regulations as in monogamy produce a deistic culture with definite places of worship.
Culture in the sense of the external expression of internal human energy resulting from
the use of human powers of reason, creation and self knowledge becomes possible only with
strictly enforced monogamous sex mores. The mechanism of this operation is not known, just
as it is not known how carbon placed under different settings turns to coal or diamond.[9] All that can be said is that there is a definite causal link
between sexual behavior and the culture pattern. As Unwin comes to this conclusion after
conducting exhaustive methodical investigations, it is possible to maintain that
scientific inquiries too have confirmed the Buddhist point of view regarding the
relationship between morality and culture.
Sensuality and Environment
The Anguttara Nikaya (I, 160) maintains that
rainfall decreases when society comes under the sway of perverted lust, wanton greed and
wrong values. Drought causes famine as a result of which the mortality rate goes up.
Though it is difficult to establish a direct connection between immorality and lack of
rain, an interpretation of the five natural laws mentioned on the commentaries might offer
a plausible explanation.
In the cosmos there are five natural
laws or forces, namely utuniyama (lit. season law), bijaniyama (lit.
seed-law) cittaniyama, kammaniyama, and dhammaniyama.[10] These can be translated as physical laws, biological laws, psychological
laws, moral laws, and causal laws. While the first four laws operate within their
respective spheres, the last law of causality operates within them as well as among them.
Thus the physical environment or ecology affects living organisms, i.e. biology; this
influences psychology, which determines the moral force. The opposite process also
operates with harmful or beneficial results depending on the nature or the forces at work.
Perhaps the operation can be illustrated with a concrete example. Man's greed for luxury,
wealth and power has caused the setting up of vast factories. They created the problem of
air, water and noise pollution, which have adversely affected both fauna and flora.[11] The inadvertent modifications of atmospheric properties and
processes caused by human activities is intensively studied by scientific bodies today. It
is complained that although the effects of pollutants and smog upon people, plants and
economic activities have been extensively studied, relatively little attention has been
paid to the effects of pollution and smog upon climatic patterns. It is well known that
many climatic elements such as radiation, cloudiness, fog, visibility and the atmospheric
electric field are affected by pollution. Temperature and humidity are influenced
indirectly and effects on precipitation are also suspected.[12]
Science will reveal in the course of time whether pollution is definitely responsible for
weather and climatic change, but it remains a fact that the world is already confronted
with an acute shortage of water.
It is no secret that man uses his
inherent powers of reason, intelligence and creativity to change his environment for his
advantage. But man is not aware that the moral force he himself creates brings about
corresponding changes in his environment to his weal or woe whether he likes it or
not.
Conclusion
Concluding this essay, it should be emphasized that
there is a Cosmic Moral Force which profoundly influences man. According to Buddhism it is
this Cosmic Moral Law or Force which makes the world and mankind go on: kammana vattati
loko, kammana vattati paja (Sn. v 654). This Cosmic Moral Force is generated by
none other than man himself, for the Buddha maintains that human thoughts are a moral
force (cetanaham bhikkhave kammam vadami, A III, 410). It is also more directly
said that thoughts (or ideologies) make the world go on (cittena ni yato loko, S.
I, 39). Therefore man has to discover his own inherent powers which are, at present,
mostly dissipated on alcohol and sensuality. The discovery of the potentialities of The
World Within is the most urgent need of today as modern man living in Sick Cities,
lost in a Sexual Wilderness, unaware of The Hidden Persuaders, is being
slowly but surely reduced to a Naked Ape.[13]
About the Author
Lily de Silva is a professor in Buddhist Studies at
the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Educated at the University of Ceylon, Peradeniya,
she obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts with First Class Honors in Pali and the
Woodward Prize for Pali. She has taught at the University of Peradeniya since 1959 and was
awarded the Ph.D. degree in 1967. Dr. de Silva is the editor of the Digha Nikaya
Atthakatha Tika (Subcommentary to the Digha Nikaya), published by the Pali Text
Society of London in three volumes. She is also the author of Paritta: The Buddhist
Ceremony for Peace and Prosperity in Sri Lanka (National Museums of Sri Lanka,
Colombo, 1981) and is a regular contributor to Buddhist scholarly and popular journals.
She was a Visiting Scholar at the Center for the Study of World Religions, Harvard
University, in 1978-79.
Notes
1. Abstinence from killing, stealing, sexual
misconduct, false speech and intoxicants. [Go back]
2. Paper
read at the Conference on Buddhism and the Modern World, Dongguk University, Seoul, Korea,
1976. [Go back]
3. Works
consulted are: Vance Packard, The Sexual Wilderness (London, 1968); Lord Annan The
Disintegration of an Old Culture (Oxford, 1966). [Go back]
4. Trevor
Ling, The Buddha (London, 1973), pp. 17, 24 f. [Go back]
5. See
G.E.W. Wolstenholme and Julie Knight, eds., The Pineal Gland (London, 1971). [Go back]
6.The
Family in Cross-Cultural Perspective (New York, 1963), pp. 256-259. [Go
back]
7. Quoted by
Packard, The Sexual Wilderness, p.417. [Go back]
8. London:
Oxford University Press, 1934. [Go back]
9. Ibid.,
pp. 424, 417, 412, etc. [Go back]
10.Atthasalini,
PTS ed., p.272. [Go back]
11.
Mitchell Gordon, Sick Cities (New York, 1963), pp. 92, 80. [Go back]
12.Weather
and Climate Modification: Problems and Prospects, Vol. II (National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, 1966) pp. 82- 108. [Go back]
13.
References are to the titles of works by Gina Cerminara (New York, 1957), Mitchell Gordon,
Vance Packard (op. cit. and London, 1957), and Desmond Morris (New York, 1967). [Go back]
The Buddhist Publication Society
The Buddhist Publication
Society is an approved charity dedicated to making known the Teaching of the Buddha, which
has a vital message for people of all creeds.
Founded in 1958, the BPS
has published a wide variety of books and booklets covering a great range of topics. Its
publications include accurate annotated translations of the Buddha's discourses, standard
reference works, as well as original contemporary expositions of Buddhist thought and
practice. These works present Buddhism as it truly is -- a dynamic force which has
influenced receptive minds for the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it
was when it first arose.
A full list of our
publications will be sent free of charge upon request. Write to:
The Hony. Secretary
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY
P.O. Box 61
54, Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy
Sri Lanka
or
Barre Center for Buddhist Studies
149 Lockwood Road
Barre, MA 01005 USA
Revised: 9 November 1998
http://world.std.com/~metta/lib/bps/wheels/wheel337.html
Update: 01-06-2001
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