Practical Advice
for Meditators
by
Bhikkhu Khantipalo
The Wheel Publication No. 116
Copyright (C) 1986
Buddhist Publication Society
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Contents
Foreword
The following pages were originally
intended as new sections to be added to the second edition of my introductory
book on the Dhamma, What is Buddhism?. However, as many people are
greatly interested in the practice of meditation, and as many are also
separated from the sources of a living tradition, it is hoped that the
following may be of value even apart from the sections of the book which
they supplement.
When we consider meditation, we cannot
stress too much the importance of having the right reasons for taking it
up. Meditation -- or, as a better translation of samadhi, collectedness
-- is only one aspect of Buddhist practice, and must, to be successful,
go hand in hand with such other practices as generosity, gentleness,
nonviolence, patience, contentment and humility. If such genuine qualities
of the Dhamma neither exist in oneself initially, nor grow through one's
practice, then something is drastically wrong, and only a foolhardy person
will try to proceed. The practice of collectedness is based upon firm roots
of virtue (sila) and cannot succeed in anyone who does not make
a real effort to be strict in keeping the precepts.
The signs of "progress" in collectedness
are not strange visions, peculiar feelings and the like (though it is conceivable
that these may arise also where progress is achieved), but rather an all-round
and harmonious growth in the way of Dhamma. If one is without a teacher
then one has to be doubly vigilant, otherwise one will never become aware
whether one of Mara's distractions is likely to succeed, or whether one
does in fact tread the Middle Practice-Path.
This essay is an extract from Buddhism
Explained, the second edition (revised and enlarged) of the book formerly
known as What is Buddhism?, published by The Social Science Press
of Thailand, Phya Thai Road, Chula Soi 2, Bangkok.
Two Streams in Meditation
Two apparently distinct streams of Buddhist
meditation may be discerned, though when meditation is established, these
are seen to be complementary.
It may be profitable for some people
whose minds are very active and who suffer from distraction, to follow
with mindfulness the mad monkey-mind's acrobatics. As the mind is really
a series of mental events which arise and pass away with incredible rapidity,
each of which is a mind complete with supporting mental factors, so at
the beginning this kind of mindfulness is really one "mindful" mind watching
other "minds" (which are all within one's own mental continuity of course).
One thereby develops the ability to look into the mind and to see where
it has gone to. Has it gone to the past, present or future? Has it gone
to materiality, or to feelings, or perhaps to cognitions, to volitional
activities, or has it gone to consciousness? By this method of "Where has
it gone?", the distracted mind slowly comes under the surveillance of the
mindful mind, until mindfulness forms a strong foundation for further development.
Considerable, though mundane, brilliance of mind is both needed and developed
by this practice, which however should be balanced by the tranquility of
the absorptions. When the mind has become calm, one should start to practice
for the absorptions (jhana), which will in their turn be the basis
for the arising of real insight. This method is called "wisdom leading
to calm."
Other methods suited to those whose
minds are less disturbed initially, include the classic forty subjects
of meditation (see Appendix); and these, together with more developed types
of meditation practice, involve the use of a definite object for concentration.
This may be one's own body or a part of it, a colour or a picture, a word
or a phrase, or abstract contemplation and so forth. All these methods
involve some firm but gentle discipline of the mind, in that each time
it strays away, it must be gently brought back again (by mindfulness, of
course) to concentrate again on the chosen subject.
Some people have the quite mistaken
idea that practice of this sort must necessarily lead to tranquility almost
at once. They may be surprised when beginning to practice themselves, since
they actually experience more troubles than they had previously. This is
firstly, because they never before really looked into their mind to know
the state it has always been in; and secondly, because having taken up
a discipline of the mind, it is as though one stirs up with a stick a stagnant
pond, or pokes with a stick a fire smoldering under ashes. The wild elephant
of the mind, long accustomed to roam in the jungle of desires, does not
take readily to taming, or to being tied to the post of practice with the
thongs of mindfulness. However, diligence and heedfulness will eventually
win for one the fruits of tranquility.
All these forty subjects are of this
second type in which the calm gained from practice is then used for the
arousing of wisdom. They are for this reason called "calm-leading-to-wisdom"
methods, and are very important in the present distracted age. For their
full explanation one should consult the Path of Purification (Visuddhi-magga,
translation), although even the great learning in that book cannot replace
the personal contact with a teacher.
Practical Advice for Meditators
Turning from the psychological to the
practical aspect, meditation for laypeople may be divided into two categories:
that which is done intensively, and that which one practices while going
about one's daily life. The meditation practiced intensively is also of
two sorts: regular daily sitting, and occasional retreat practice.
Regular Daily Sitting
We shall first discuss the regular daily
period of intensive sitting which should, where possible, be made every
day at the same time. One should guard against its becoming a ritual by
earnestness and by being intensely aware of why one had undertaken it.
The following suggestions may be found helpful as well.
As to material considerations, the
place for meditation should be fairly quiet. If one has a small room which
can be used for this purpose, so much the better, and in any case, it is
better to meditate alone, unless other members of the household also practice.
Where this latter is the case one should make sure that one's mind is pure
also in relation to others, for otherwise greed, hatred, and the rest of
the robber gang are sure to steal away the fruits of meditation.
Quietness is best obtained by getting
up early before others rise; and this is also the time when the mind is
clear and the body untired. The sincere meditator therefore keeps regular
hours, for he knows how much depends on having just enough sleep to feel
refreshed.
After rising and washing one should
sit down in clean loose clothing in the meditation place. One may have
a small shrine with Buddhist symbols, but this is not essential. Some people
find it useful to begin by making the offerings of flowers, incense, and
light, carefully reflecting while doing so. It is very common in Buddhist
countries to preface one's silent meditation by chanting softly to oneself,
"Namo tassa bhagavato arahato samma-sambuddhassa," with the Refuges and
Precepts. If one knows the Pali passages in praise of the Buddha, Dhamma
and Sangha, these may also be used at this time.[1]
Another useful preliminary is a reflection,
a discursive recitation, of some truths of the Dhamma, such as the passage
suggested below:
"Having this precious opportunity
of human birth, I have two responsibilities in the Dhamma: the benefit
of myself and the benefit of others. All other beings, whether they be
human or non-human, visible or invisible, great or small, far or near,
all these beings I shall treat with gentleness and wish that they may dwell
in peace. May they be happy . . . May they be happy . . . May they be happy
. . . ! I shall help them when they experience suffering, and be glad with
them when they are happy. May I develop as well the incomparable equanimity,
the mind in perfect balance that can never be upset!
"In looking to the welfare of others,
I shall not forget my own progress on the path of Dhamma. May I indeed
come to know how, driven here and there by the winds of kamma, I have suffered
an infinity of lives in all the realms of existence! I must also turn my
mind to consider how short and fleeting is this life. How mind and body
are ever changing, arising and declining from moment to moment. How neither
mind nor body belongs to me, neither of them is mine. I must also turn
this mind to consider how beset by troubles is this brief life. Having
been sired by craving and born out of ignorance, I must realize that death
is inescapable, that old age and disease are natural to my condition. I
must make efforts to realize for my own good and the good of others that
this person called 'myself' is a complex of mentality and materiality wherein
no abiding entity such as a soul or self is found.
"May I through this practice experience
insight into impermanence, ill and no-self! May I be one who dwells in
the Void! And having realized this sublime truth may I show the way to
others!"
When sitting, care should be taken that
the body is kept erect, yet relaxed. There should be no strain, but neither
should the head droop, nor the lumbar region sag. The body should feel
poised and balanced upright. Although the cross-legged positions (such
as the lotus posture) are best when the meditator is seated on a fairly
soft mat, a chair may be used by those unaccustomed to the lotus posture
or else unable to train themselves to sit in that way. Sitting in lotus
posture or half-lotus posture will be found much easier if a rather hard
cushion is placed so as to raise the buttocks. The knees will then tend
to touch the ground and a firm three pointed sitting (two knees and buttocks)
is then attained.
One should sit for the same length
of time every day until, as one becomes more proficient in collecting the
mind, automatically one will feel like extending the practice. One widely
used method for measuring the meditation period is sitting for the length
of time taken for a stick of incense to burn down. Having placed the hands
in meditation posture relaxed in the lap, the eyes may be closed or left
slightly open according to which is found most comfortable.
Methods used for helping to concentrate
the mind are many, and the two main streams in classical meditation have
been briefly reviewed in the section above. Other helpful methods include
the repetition of a word or phrase and perhaps with it the use of a rosary.
If one practices mindfulness of breathing, one may find the use of a word
such as "Buddho," or "Araham" good for quietening the mind. The first syllable
is silently repeated when breathing in, and one concentrates on the second
during the out-breathing. Also the counting of breath (up to ten, but generally
not over this number to prevent the mind wandering) is used as an aid for
concentration. But any such aids should be dropped when concentration improves.
When the meditation is on a phrase only, a rosary may be used in conjunction,
each repetition being marked by one bead.
One's meditation goes well if one
finds the mind increasingly absorbed on the chosen meditation subject,
but one should not assume that meditation is useless just because for a
period, longer or shorter, not much more than sleepiness or distraction
is experienced. These hindrances have to be faced; and if they are met,
not by irritation or despair, but by quietly observant mindfulness, they
can and will be overcome. For success, great persistence and evenness of
effort are necessary.
The meditation period may close with
some chanting, the usual subject being the well being of others and the
distribution of merits to them. A translation, or the original Pali, of
the Metta Sutta (Discourse on Lovingkindness)[2]
may be chanted at this time and, as it is not long, can be easily memorized.
As methods of chanting vary, it is very helpful if one can obtain recordings,
perhaps on tape, of the passages one wishes to learn, recorded by bhikkhus.
While on the subject of chanting,
it is very useful to know a few discourses of Lord Buddha in one of the
Buddhist classical languages, and to use these for collecting the mind
if there should be an occasion when no concentration at all can be obtained.
At such a time a meditator should not feel depressed but should continue
sitting and chant softly to himself. This is what Buddhist monks do twice
a day as part of their mental development, and it is useful as well for
fostering a more devotional approach necessary as balance with intellectual
characters. Another useful method for the overcoming of distraction is
walking-practice, which may be done in any passage of the house or in a
secluded walk in the garden. A length of twenty or thirty paces will be
sufficient, for if longer the mind tends to wander, and if shorter, distraction
may be increased. One should walk at the speed one feels to be natural,
with the hands clasped the left in the right, and arms relaxed in front
of the body. At the ends of the walk one should turn in a clockwise direction.[3]
Perhaps a few words on devotion would
not be out of place here, for this is very important in meditation practice.
No one who is not a devoted Buddhist takes up Buddhist meditation,
for the simple reason that he does not have the Buddhist ideals in his
heart. The taking to heart of the Triple Refuge and the understanding of
the Triple Gem are closely linked with Buddhist meditation. A really devoted
Buddhist, who puts his whole life into the Dhamma, will have no insurmountable
difficulties in meditation practice. Whatever obstacles he comes to, those
he leaps over, sustained by devotion. He is prepared for the way to be
long and hard because he realizes that he has made it like that. If he
finds his way blocked, his meditation failing to progress and he himself
without a teacher, he does not waver or falter on the way. He thinks, "I
am now experiencing the results of intentional actions (kamma) made by
me in the past." And he remembers Lord Buddha's last words: "Subject to
breaking-up are all compounded things. With mindfulness strive on." All
difficulties are compounded things and will eventually change; meanwhile
much may be done with mindfulness, vigor and devotion.
If one is not too tired after work
and if there is opportunity in the evening, another period of sitting can
be undertaken then. In any case, before sleep, it is a wise practice to
sit, if only for a few minutes, so as to purify the mind before lying down.
One may consider thus: "When I lie down there is no certainty that I shall
awake." One may, therefore, be lying down to die, and this is a good reflection
to rouse skillful states of mind and banish sensual unskillful ones. If
one practices this, "the lying-down to die," it will be a very good preparation
for the real event, which is bound to take place at some time in the unknown
future. It may even generate the right conditions for the arising of insight
allowing one "to die," giving up the grasping at what does not belong to
one, that is, the mind and body. At this time also, a Dhamma phrase or
word may be used, repeating which one eventually falls to sleep. In this
way one ends and begins the day with practice of Buddhist teachings. And
apart from devotion of one's whole day to them, what could be better?
Retreats
Regarding the second division of intensive
practice, that is, when undertaken in retreat, much will depend upon what
facilities are available to the earnest student. There are now a few places
in the West where meditation instruction can be sought. The most important
thing is to have direct contact with an able meditation master (books serve
at the beginning, while even a teacher is later found deficient in some
way). After satisfying this one condition, only one other is necessary:
one must strive with diligence to practice and realize his teachings. If
these two conditions are fulfilled, then one is the most fortunate among
human beings.
Many will be without access to a
teacher and some may like to try a period of solitary meditation in some
quiet part of the country. This should only be attempted if one has already
developed a good power of mindfulness. Otherwise what was meant to foster
meditation may become a very unprofitable time, perhaps accompanied by
the seeming intensification of the mental defilements.
Daily Life
As to the other sort of meditation practice,
which is performed in daily life, though much may be written, the following
few words may serve as a guide. First, one should not deceive oneself regarding
concentration of the mind. It is of no use pretending to oneself or to
others that one's daily life is meditation -- unless of course one
has already great powers of concentration. Only the real adept, often one
who has sat for many years keeping the monastic discipline, can really
perceive ordinary life as meditation; and such a one would be most unlikely
to tell others of this fact. Refusing to allow pride an opportunity to
distort the real state of mental affairs, one should take stock with fairness
and admit one's limitations. This is already a great step forward. The
layman who thinks of himself as an Arahat already, has blocked off very
effectively all real progress; while the honest man has at least the wisdom
to be humble.
Much may be accomplished with mindfulness,
while without it there is no hope for meditation in daily life. How are
quite ordinary events capable of being made into meditation? By mindfulness,
which to begin with, may be defined as, awareness of the present work
in hand. At first great effort has to be made in order to remain mindful
of what one is supposed to be doing, nor can one pretend that such mindfulness
is pleasant always. To escape from dull and unliked work and situations,
we tend to turn either to fantasy worlds, hopes, or else to memories, which
are respectively the delusive escapes into the present, future or past.
But for one really interested in understanding himself, none of these courses
is very rewarding, since they are compounded of delusion with various ingredients,
such as fear, craving or ignorance. While in the practice of strict meditation,
mindfulness may follow all the wanderings of the mind; in daily life it
is better that the mind should be constantly returned to the job in hand.
One should not "send" one's mind anywhere, neither to a dream-world nor
to the past, nor to the future. Lord Buddha compared these periods of time
thus:
"The past is like a dream,
The future as a mirage,
While the present is like clouds."
Such a simile may be useful as the mind
darts about between dreams, mirages and clouds, all insubstantial, though
the ever-changing present, so like the clouds in the sky, is the only aspect
of time compared to things of greater reality. One may also consider meditation
as the exercise of mindfulness which keeps the mind "inside" this body,
that is, always focused upon some aspect of it. Of course only the most
sincere meditator, who sees the advantage in this to be greater than any
pleasure offered by the world, is likely to practice in this way, since
this cuts off not only interest in outer objects but also the toying with
pleasant or intriguing ideas.
Indeed, with work that is really
interesting, the way of mindfulness is the only way to convert one's day
into something worthwhile. Days pass and bring us nearer to death and an
unknown rebirth, while it is now that one has the chance to practice
Dhamma. Instead of reacting with aversion or deluded fantasies towards
what one does not like (or in other situations indulging one's greed),
the Way of Mindfulness constitutes the Middle Practice-Path transcending
these ancient patterns of reaction. There is no need to be ruled either
by greed or by hatred, nor to be dominated by delusion; but only mindfulness
shows the way beyond these.
Constantly bringing the mind back
and disengaging it from tangles is the basic practice in everyday life.
It is also wise to take advantage of those odd times during work when one
waits for something to do, to meet someone, for a bus or train, or any
time when one is alone for a few minutes. Instead of turning to a newspaper
for distraction, to the wireless, or to another person for gossip, it is
more profitable to "retire inside" oneself. Disengaging attention from
exterior objects, take up mindfulness of breathing, or the repetition of
some phrase of Dhamma, or significant word such as "Buddho" or "Arahant,"
doing this until one has again to attend to work. Going inwards as often
as possible will be found very useful, strengthening one's sitting practice
just as the latter in turn strengthens the ability to turn within.
Mindfulness of breathing is especially
good as a concentration method for use during travel and during the times
when one is restlessly expecting a bus or a train. Why be agitated or impatient?
A little mindful breathing is just the practice for these moments, since
it calms the feverish workings of the mind and the restless movements of
the body. One does not have to aimlessly stare out of windows while traveling!
Why be a slave of the "eye-dominant" when a little useful practice could
take its place? One does not have to listen to the idle chatter of others,
so why be a slave to the "ear-dominant"? One cannot shut one's ears, but
everyone can withdraw attention to some extent while practicing mindfulness.
It is mindfulness also which helps
to bring into focus counteractive contemplations. Lust, for instance, is
soon dissipated by thoughts of a decaying corpse. The looks which are bestowed
on pretty girls (or handsome man) seem ridiculous when it is thought that
old ladies and equally ancient men never attract such desire-filled attention.
Only when one sees how lust burns up the one who indulges in it, only then
does it seem worth relinquishing.
Similarly gluttony, even in a mild
form, can be demolished by contemplating the bodily processes connected
with food. Chewed food looks a good deal less palatable then when the same
stuff before mixing with spittle was nicely laid out on plates. Vomit is
just the same substances in the process of change but does not readily
arouse greed. Excrement even if placed on the finest gold plate fails to
become attractive -- yet this is the remnants of the food so eagerly gorged!
By the time that one has contemplated food in these three stages, greed
has quite disappeared, and one may take food just as a medicine to preserve
the body.
Mindfulness is also responsible for
becoming sufficiently aware in a moment of anger to turn the mind to other
subjects or persons. It is mindfulness that warns one of an approaching
situation where anger may arise, and makes it possible to turn aside and
dwell in equanimity, or where the Divine Abidings are well developed, in
friendliness.
When envy rears its ugly head, mindfulness
gives one presence of mind to know "envy has arisen," and if efforts to
arouse gladness with others' joy fail, it is mindfulness that helps one
dwell in equanimity, or if all else fails, helps turn attention to other
objects.
Lord Buddha has truly said, "Mindfulness,
I declare, is helpful everywhere."
The social implications of meditation
should be obvious from the above. Those who have the strange delusion that
Buddhism is a religion of meditative isolation, offering society no social
benefits, should understand that a Buddhist believes society can only be
changed for the better, and with some degree of permanence, by starting
work on himself. Buddhist ideals of society are expressed in a number of
important discourses addressed by Lord Buddha to lay people, and in them
the developments of the individual is always stressed as a very necessary
factor. The advantages of a society in which there are a large number of
those dwelling at peace with themselves need hardly be stressed. The development
of wisdom and compassion by one man has its effect in leavening the materialistic
dough around him. The Buddhist call is therefore first to gain peace
in one's own heart, when will follow, quite naturally, peace in
the world. Trying to obtain peace the other way round will never be practical
nor produce a lasting peace, for the roots of greed, hatred, and delusion
have still a firm grip on the hearts of people. Impractical? Only for those
who do not practice. Those who take up the cultivation of mindfulness find
out for themselves how it helps to solve life's problems.
Although many journeys to remote
and attractive places are now performed with ease, the way leading to Nibbana
still needs effort. But if the way is sometimes drear, with mindfulness
the only guiding light, at least from reflection one knows that the goal
is glorious and of great worth, not only for oneself but for others as
well.
Divine Abidings and their Perfection
(Brahma-vihara)
The way to that goal leads through what
are called the Divine Abidings,[4]
which train the deep-rooted emotions from being unskillful into the skillful
way of the Dhamma. As had already been emphasized above, the aim of oneself
as of all beings, is to gain happiness-producing conditions. Therefore
one must act in such a way that happiness will result from one's actions.
One should, in this case, treat others as they would wish to be treated,
for every living being is dear to itself, and wishes its own welfare and
happiness. One cannot expect to have an isolated happiness arising from
no cause or from itself, nor can happiness be expected if one maltreats
other beings, human or otherwise. Every being desires life and is afraid
of death, this being as true of ourselves as of other creatures.
Only a man who constantly leads an
upright and compassionate life is really dear to himself, for he does actions
which are of great profit, of great happiness. Other people, although they
think that they are dear to themselves, are really their own worst enemies,
for they go about doing to themselves what only an enemy would wish for
them.
Good conduct depends on a well-trained
mind which has gradually been freed from the clutches of greed, hatred
and delusion. To hold one's neighbor as dear as one should truly hold oneself,
is easily said but with difficulty done. It is the particular merit of
Lord Buddha's teachings that they always point out how a method
is to be translated into experience, the method here being the mental training
of the Divine Abidings. When we say "mental," this word should be understood
not in the narrow sense of the intellectual processes, but rather to include
the full range of the mind-and-heart, intellect and emotions.
There are four states of Divine Abidings:
friendliness, compassion, gladness and equanimity. These, especially the
first, are very popular meditations in Buddhist countries. What follows
is a short explanation of each.
Friendliness (metta)
is an unselfish love which can be extended to everyone. This becomes easy
once one has gained the meditative absorptions, when the quality of friendliness
becomes an integral part of one's character. In the normal way of things,
people only "love" the few people to whom they are especially attached
by ties of family, etc. Such is love with sensual attachment, a limited
love, and those outside that love are either ignored or disliked. Sensual
love, then, is not only linked to attachment (greed), but also to hatred
and delusion, so that the person who is content with this love pays a heavy
price for it. A love without attachment is scarcely conceivable to many
people, but such love is much superior to the former; being without attachment
it can become infinite and need not be confined to this or that group of
beings. As it can be made infinite, leaving none outside it, there is no
question of the three roots of unskill being linked with it.
Friendliness can be developed gradually
in one's meditation period every day, but if it is really effective
it must show in one's daily life. It makes life easier by turning persons
whom one formerly disliked or hated into, at the beginning, those whom
one disregards, and then as one's practice becomes stronger, into objects
for the arising of loving-kindness. It is Lord Buddha's medicine for the
disease of hatred and dislike. Finally, one is warned that it has two enemies:
the "near" one is sensual attachment, often miscalled "love," while the
"far" enemy to its development is hatred. In the development of friendliness
one must beware of these two.
Compassion (karuna)
is taking note of the sufferings of other beings in the world. It overcomes
callous indifference to the plight of suffering beings, human or otherwise.
Likewise, it must be reflected in one's life by a willingness to go out
of one's way to give aid where possible, and to help those in distress.
It has the advantage of reducing one's selfishness by understanding others'
sorrows. It is Lord Buddha's medicine for cruelty, for how can one harm
others when one has seen how much they have to suffer already? It has also
two enemies: the "near" one is mere grief; while its "far" enemy is cruelty.
Gladness (mudita) is
to rejoice with others over their success, gains happiness. It overcomes
the grudging attitude to others, and the envy which may arise on hearing
of others' joy. It must show in one's life as a spontaneous joy at the
very time when one learns that other people have some gain or other, material
or immaterial. It has the advantage of making one open-hearted towards
others, and does away with secretiveness. A person who develops gladness
attracts many friends who are devoted to him, and with them and others
he lives in harmony. It is Lord Buddha's medicine for envy and jealousy,
which it can inhibit completely. The two enemies of gladness are the merely
personal happiness of reflecting on one's own gains -- this is the "near"
enemy; while the "far" one is aversion to, or boredom with, this gladness.
Equanimity (upekkha)
is to be developed to deal with situations where one should admit that
it is beyond one's powers to change them. It overcomes worry and useless
distraction over affairs which either do not concern one or else cannot
be changed by oneself. It is reflected in one's life by an ability to meet
difficult situations with tranquility and undisturbed peace of mind. The
advantage to be seen in its development is that it makes one's life more
simple by disengaging from useless activity. It is Lord Buddha's medicine
for distraction and worry, and its enemies are mere indifference, which
is the "near" one; while greed, and its partner resentment, which involve
one unskillfully in so many affairs, are its "far" enemies.
The mind well-practiced in these
four virtues, and then well-trained by their use in daily life, has already
gained very much.
Three of the perfections (parami),
or qualities, practiced by many Buddhists who aspire to enlightenment may
also be outlined here, as they too have an intimate bearing on the practice
of meditation.
Patience and its Perfection
(Khanti-parami)
Patience is an excellent quality much
praised in Buddhist scriptures. It can be developed easily only if restlessness
and hatred have already been subdued in the mind, as is done by meditation
practice. Impermanence, which has the tendency to make one rush around
and thus miss many good chances, results from the inability to sit still
and let things sort themselves out -- which sometimes they may do without
one's meddling. The patient man has many a fruit fall into his lap which
the go-getter misses. One of them is a quiet mind, for impatience churns
the mind up and brings with it the familiar anxiety-diseases of the modern
business world. Patience quietly endures -- it is this quality which makes
it so valuable in mental training and particularly in meditation. It is
no good expecting instant enlightenment after five minutes practice. Coffee
may be instant, but meditation is not, and only harm will come of trying
to hurry it up. For ages the rubbish has accumulated, an enormous pile
of mental refuse, and so when one comes along at first with a very tiny
teaspoon and starts removing it, how fast can one expect it to disappear?
Patience is the answer, and determined energy to go with it. The patient
meditator really gets results of lasting value; the seeker after "quick
methods" or "sudden enlightenment" is doomed by his own attitude to long
disappointment.
Indeed, it must soon become apparent
to anyone investigating the Dhamma, that these teachings are not for the
impatient. A Buddhist views his present life as a little span perhaps of
eighty years or so, and the latest one so far of many such lives. Bearing
this in mind, he determines to do as much in this life for the attainment
of Enlightenment as possible. But he does not overestimate his capabilities;
he just quietly and patiently gets on with living the Dhamma from
day to day. Rushing headlong at Enlightenment (or what one thinks it is),
like a bull in a china shop, is not likely to get one very far, that is
unless one is a very exceptional character who can take such treatment,
and most important, one who is devoted to a very skillful master of meditation.
With patience one will not bruise
oneself, but will go carefully step by step along the way. We learn that
a Bodhisatta is well aware of this, and that he cultures his mind with
this perfection so that it is not disturbed by any of the untoward occurrences
common in this world. He decides that he will be patient with exterior
conditions -- not to be upset when the sun is too hot or the weather too
cold. Not to be agitated by other beings which attack his body, such as
bugs and mosquitoes. Neither will he be disturbed when people utter harsh
words, lies or abuse about him, either to his face or behind his back.
His patience is not broken even when his body is subjected to torment,
blows, sticks and stones, tortures, and even death itself; he will endure
these steadily, so unflinching is his patience. Buddhist monks also are
advised to practice in the same way.
In Buddhist tradition the perfection
of patience is rather better known than some of the others. This is because
a quite outstanding Birth Story illustrates it. The Khantivadi (Teacher
of Patience) Birth Story[5]
should be read many times and made the object of deep and frequent reflections.
Only an exceptionally noble person, in this case Gotama in a previous life,
when he was called the Patience-teaching Rishi, can gently exhort a raging
and drunk monarch, who out of his jealous anger, is slowly cutting that
person's body to pieces. Such nobility did the Bodhisatta have and such
nobility, steadfast endurance, and gentleness, is required of all who would
try to reach the goal of Enlightenment.
Energy and its Perfection
(Viriya-parami)
Just as Enlightenment is inconceivable
unless a person has patience, so it is not attainable without effort being
made. The Dhamma never encourages the doctrine of fatalism, and true Buddhists
never think of events as being rigidly predetermined. Such fatalism is
combated by mindfulness and by energy itself. This perfection is the counterpart
of the previous one, and balanced by practice, they ensure that the sincere
Buddhist neither passively accepts what he should combat nor rushes around
to the disturbance of himself and others when he should have patience.
By way of warning it may be mentioned here that in the Buddhist world can
be found a number of "methods" which seem to promise the riches of Dhamma
all in no time. One hears such remarks as, "What's the use of books and
study?" Or even, "The development of calm is a waste of time! One should
only develop insight." Such lop-sided approaches do not reflect the wisdom
of Lord Buddha, who taught time and again the necessity of a balanced
development of mind. Books and their study are useful to some people
who wish to gain a good background of what Lord Buddha really said, before
taking up more intensive practice. As for the other assertion, no real
insight (only delusive ideas) will arise to the person whose mind has no
experience of calm. Such views as these, which are usually based on some
peculiar experience of those "teachers" who originate them, are apt to
mislead many, since the craving for quick results coupled with the dislike
of the necessary hard work, are easily stirred up. There must be patience
to accept that the conditions required for success of meditation (as outlined
here) have to be fulfilled, and the only result if failing to do so, is
straying off the Way. The meditator applies himself steadily to whatever
task he has in hand and, coming to the end of it, does not feel tired at
all but straightaway takes up a new objective.
It is interesting in this respect
that tiredness is of two kinds: that relating to physical exhaustion; and
the other kind which is mentally induced and involves the unskillful factors
of sloth and torpor. While the former is of course unavoidable, the latter
occurs only when the unskillful root of delusion (or dullness) becomes
predominant in the mind. This happens when there is a situation which is
unpleasant to "me," unwanted, and from which "I" want to escape. People
complain that they become much more tired sitting in meditation while practicing
intensively than they do when, say, they do a bit of heavy reading. When
the self feels threatened by a self-revealing event, then this self, rooted
in unknowing, throws up a dense fog of torpor proceeding from the root
of delusion. On the other hand, many who have practiced much meditation
remark that they do not have to sleep so long as they did formerly, while
energy, when it becomes a perfection as practiced by the Bodhisatta, is
quite natural and unforced.
This perfection is illustrated by
the story of the caravan-leader who saved the merchants, men and animals
entrusted to his care, by vigorous action. When others would have given
themselves up to death since the caravan had taken a wrong course in the
desert and all supplies were exhausted, their leader forced one of them
to dig for water, which he found. In this way, in a previous life did Gotama,
as the caravan-leader, make effort not only for his own life but also for
the welfare of others. Monks are also referred to as "caravan-leaders"
in several places in Pali scriptures, showing that it is not only Lord
Buddha or a Bodhisatta who is able to guide others. If we deal energetically
with our own training then we too have energy for the advancement of others.
Many other stories like the above could be found in Buddhist works showing
how necessary is energy, from which spring persistence and determination
for the seeing of the truly real, Nibbana.
Collectedness and its Perfection
(Samadhi-parami)
Bearing in mind the meanings of this
word together with such specialized terms as (mind-) development (bhavana),
absorption (jhana), insight (vipassana), one-pointedness
(ekaggata), and meditaton exercise (kammatthana), we may
now examine what constitutes perfected collectedness. What especially marks
off the good Buddhist's practice, whether he be a Bodhisatta or not, from
that of an ordinary meditator (in any religion), is that the latter will
most likely become firmly attached to the delights occurring in the upper
reaches of the sensual realm, or to the pure joys of the realm of form
and, as a result, come to birth in one of these heavenly states. If one
gets oneself trapped in one of these bourns, where pleasures and joys are
great and sufferings but little, then it is unlikely that one will be able
to generate the energy necessary for the perfection of wisdom. Therefore,
the good meditator tries to become proficient in the absorptions (so that
he can enter them when he likes, and emerge when he likes), while not being
attached to them. But one should note that this applies only to the skilled
meditator who has already obtained the absorptions. If one has not reached
to these levels, then ardent aspiration, not detachment, will be the correct
attitude.
After these absorptions have been
attained, they may be reviewed as impermanent, unsatisfactory and devoid
of self or soul (aniccam, dukkham, anatta), at which
time detachment from them will naturally arise and insight (vipassana)
be experienced. The absorptions (and the powers which may arise in connection
with them) are thus, in the Buddhist way of training, never an end in themselves
but are always used to promote insight and wisdom, which arise when the
collected mind is set the task of examining the mind and body in order
to know completely their characteristics.
A story which brings out the meaning
of this perfection is told of Kuddalamuni's life. His name means the Mattock
sage and he was thus called because of the difficulty he experienced in
freeing himself from attachment to his mattock. Several times leaving his
house with intent to meditate in the forest, he was dragged back by the
memory of his mattock and his old occupation of farming. One day, reflecting
on the inconstancy with which he pursued meditation, he took his mattock
and, whirling it round his head, sent it spinning into the depths of the
nearby Ganges. Having done this, he burst out in a great cry of joy. The
local rajah who was passing that way with his army, sent a man to enquire
why this farmer was so joyful, to which the sage replied by relating his
experience. The rajah and many others were much impressed by his reply,
and some followed him to take up a meditative life in the forest; after
which, we are told, all passed away to experience life in the realm of
form. The Mattock-sage, who was none other than Gotama in a past life,
exhibited even then another aspect of the perfection of meditation: the
ability to train others in meditation after gaining proficiency in it oneself.
Finally, we may add brief notes on
some of the dangers to meditation practice.
Dangers to Meditation
While the number of ways a meditator
may go astray is legion, the few mentioned below deserve a special mention
due to their common occurrence. First, a danger that cannot be stressed
enough is the lack of right motivation for the practice of meditation.
When the Eightfold Path is described, in its "wisdom" section, standing
next to the (at first) intellectual right understanding, comes right motivation,
thus emphasizing that the emotional roots underlying practice of the Way
must be skillful ones: those connected with renunciation (non-greed), goodwill
(non-hatred) and non-violence are mentioned. If one approaches Buddhist
meditation with neither right understanding regarding dukkha and
its cessation, nor with right motives, then one's meditation is liable
to seriously astray.
There have, for instance, been those
who took up meditation as a way to invest themselves with power, so that
they could easily sway or hypnotize disciples. Others have seen it as a
quick way to gain both disciples and riches. Fame may also be an unworthy
motive. All these, as motives for playing with meditation, may easily lead
the unwary into illness, and sometimes mental unbalance. There is nothing
worse in Buddhist meditation, where a person's own sure experience is of
paramount importance, than a half-baked disciple who sets himself up as
a master.
This obviously leads on to a further
danger -- that of pride, of which there are several forms. One such is
the pride of the person who has seen manifestations of light during meditation,
and supposes this to be the sign preceding mental absorption. Then there
is the pride of one who touches on a mental absorption if only for an instant
and as a result assumes that he has become a Noble One, and this can be
a very powerful factor in convincing himself if not others. Quite ordinary
people who take up meditation may beware of the common "holier-than-thou"
attitudes: "I make an effort, whereas you . . .," or, "I meditate
every day, whereas you . . ." Pride is a great obstacle to any progress,
and while it is only a Buddha or Arahat who is entirely rid of it, everyone
should have the mindfulness to check it.
Related to this is the danger for
the person who always looks for so-called progress. He is sure that he
is making "progress" because in meditation he sees lights, hears sounds,
or feels strange sensations. He becomes more and more fascinated by these
as time goes by, and gradually forgets that he started with the aspiration
to find the way to Enlightenment. His "meditation" then degenerates into
visions and strange happenings, leading him into the realms of occultism
and magic. There is no surer way for a meditator to become entangled than
this way. Fascinating though all such manifestations may be, they should
be rigorously cut down by resorting to bare attention, never permitting
discursive thought regarding them, and thus avoiding these distractions.
Among "visions" which one may see,
whether they be internal (produced from one's own mind) or external (produced
by other beings), there may be for some meditators an experience of the
fearful, such as the sight of one's own body reduced to bones or inflated
as a rotting corpse. If such an experience occurs, or others of a similar
nature, one should withdraw the mind from the vision immediately, supposing
that one has no teacher. Visions of the fearful variety which occur to
some people may be very useful if rightly employed, but without a teacher's
guidance they should be avoided.
Another danger is trying to meditate
while one is still too emotionally insecure, unbalanced or immature. An
understanding of the value of meritorious deeds or skillfulness will come
in useful here. As merit purifies the mind, it will be an excellent basis
for mind-development, and both the ease with which absorptions are gained
and the ease with which insight arises are to some extent dependent upon
merit. Meritorious deeds are not difficult to find in life. They are the
core of a good Buddhist life: giving and generosity, undertaking the precepts,
help and service to others, reverence, listening whole-heartedly to Dhamma,
setting upright one's understanding of Dhamma -- all these and more are
meritorious deeds which bring happiness and emotional maturity. Merit,
one should always remember, opens doors everywhere. It makes possible,
it makes opportunities. To have a mind at all times set upon making merit,
is to have a mind that may be trained to develop absorptions and insight.
Obviously it follows that to try
to practice meditation while all the time retaining one's old cravings,
likes and dislikes is, to say the least, making one's path difficult if
not dangerous. Meditation implies renunciation, and no practice will be
successful unless one is at least prepared to make efforts to restrain
greed and hatred, check lust, and understand when delusion is clouding
the heart. How far one carries renunciation and whether this involves outward
changes (such as becoming a monk or nun), depends much on a person and
his circumstances, but one thing is sure: inward renunciation, an attitude
of giving-up with regard to both unskillful mental events and bodily indulgence,
is absolutely essential.
Often connected with the above dangers
is another, to be seen in cases where a man suddenly has an opportunity
to undertake a longer period of meditation practice. He sits down with
the firm resolve, "Now I shall meditate," but though his energy is ever
so great and though he sits and sits and walks and walks, still his mind
is disturbed and without peace. It may well be that his own strong effort
has much to do with his distractions. Moreover, he has to learn that it
is necessary to meditate knowing the imitations of his character. Just
as any other worker who knows the limits of his strength and is careful
not to exhaust himself, so is the able meditator careful. With mindfulness
one should know what are the extremes, of laziness and of strain, to be
avoided.
It is through straining or forcing
meditation practice that many emotionally disturbed states arise. Sudden
bursts of intense anger all over insignificant trifles, fierce cravings
and lusts, strange delusions and even more peculiar fantasies can all be
produced from unwisely arduous practice.
With all these dangers it is a skilled
teacher who is most necessary to give advice, so that these and other wrong
turnings are avoided and one keeps straight along the way to Nibbana. Those
who are without a teacher should proceed with utmost caution, making sure
that their development of mindfulness is very good indeed. If they are
mindful and see that despite their efforts, their meditation practice is
making no real difference to their lives in terms of greater internal peace,
or externally in relation to others, then it should be apparent that something
is wrong. Meditation may be laid aside for some time while making efforts
to contact a genuine source of information, preferably a living meditation
master, in the meantime giving due attention to unsolved moral problems,
which until sorted out will not permit the mind to develop; and making
a great effort to live one's life according to Buddhist standards. When
quite basic matters of this sort are neglected, one cannot hope to make
much progress upon the Middle Practice-Path.
Appendix
40 Meditation Exercises
as listed in the Path of Purification
If one has no meditation teacher from
whom one may request a meditation subject, then one has to rely upon one's
knowledge of one's character in order to prescribe for oneself a suitable
meditation. There are forty meditation exercises (kammatthana) noted
by the great teacher Buddhaghosa as being suited to certain types of character.
For the purposes of meditation, he considers six characters: faithful,
intelligent, and speculative (in which the skillful roots of non-greed,
non-hatred and non-delusion are variously dominant); and greedy, hating,
and deluded (in which greed, hatred and delusion, the unskillful roots,
are dominant). The trouble here is twofold: firstly, very few "pure" types
can be found, most people being mixtures of two or more of them -- and
moreover ever-changing mixtures; and secondly, it is rather difficult to
judge which class one's character belongs to since one's own delusion and
pride are apt to blur one's judgements. This is but one small matter in
which the value of the meditation teacher may be discerned very easily.
One may learn much about oneself, however, by being mindful at the time
when some unexpected event takes place. At that time one can
spot one's reaction and the stains which are present in the mind. Later
judgements are not worth very much, since by that time the mind has got
round to self-justifications, and other kinds of distortions of the original
event.
Below is given the list of the forty
meditation exercises with some notes upon their practice, the characters
which are benefited, and the types of stains combated by them. The most
widely used meditation exercises are starred (*).
Ten Kasinas (spheres, lit: totalities)
1. earth
2. water
3. fire
4. air
5. blue
6. yellow
7. red
8. white
9. light *
10. limited space
5-8 recommended for the practice of
hate characters because of their pure, pleasing colors.
Apart from the possible exception
of 5-8, no special moral stain is counteracted by these ten kasinas. As
they are to be developed through the eye, they will not be very suitable
for anyone with weak sight (according to Buddhaghosa).
The only one of the ten kasinas which
seems to be practiced much these days is that of light, which some people
find arises quite naturally when they begin to concentrate the mind. While
Acariya Buddhaghosa's explanations in Path of Purification tend
to stress the importance of using exterior supports for practice (the making
of the earth kasina is very minutely described), whenever the writer has
heard of them being employed (in Thailand), they are always in the nature
of visions (nimitta) arising internally and being developed from
this basis. It appears that contemplations of an exterior earth, etc. kasina
is unknown in Thailand.
Ten Kinds of Foulness (asubha)
11. the bloated (corpse)
counteracting delight in beauty of proportions
12. the livid ... beauty of complexion
13. the festering ... scents and
perfumes
14. the cut-up ... wholeness or
compactness
15. the gnawed ... well-fleshed
body
16. the scattered ... grace of limbs
17. the hacked and scattered ...
grace of body as a whole
18. the bleeding ... ornaments and
jewelry
19. the worm-infested ... ownership
of the body
20. the skeleton ... having fine
bones and teeth
11-20 recommended for greed characters.
These and similar lists in the Satipatthana
Sutta reflect the time when disposal of corpses upon charnel-grounds was
common. Now, however, even in Buddhist lands they are difficult to find,
let alone in Western countries. Teachers in Thailand at the present time
stress that one's own body is to be seen in these ways as a vision
(nimitta) arising in the course of mind-development. As these can
be fearful, one should have the instruction of a skilled teacher for dealing
with such visions, when they can be of great advantage. It may be stressed
here that there is nothing morbid in contemplating such sights, interior
or exterior, as these. The body's decay is just something natural, but
normally it is not seen because people do not like to admit this. Instead
of facing bodily decay and bringing it out into the open, dead bodies are
even made to look attractive by embalmers and cosmeticians; and where this
cannot be done, they are stowed away in beautiful coffins with bright flowers,
etc. Buddhist training makes one look squarely at those aspects of life
which normally (that is, with craving) are not considered "nice," and makes
one calmly face them in respect of one's own mind and body.
Ten Reflections (anussati)
21. upon the Buddha *
22. " the Dhamma
23. " the Sangha
24. " virtue (sila) .....
{counteracts the stain (kilesa) of bad conduct (duccarita)}
25. " generosity ..... {counteracts
meanness (macchariya)}
26. " celestials ..... {counteracts
scepticism (vicikiccha)}
27. " death ..... {counteracts laziness}
28. " body * ..... {counteracts
lust & sensuality (kama-raga)}
29. " breathing * ..... {counteracts
delusion, worry}
30. " peace ..... {counteracts disturbance}
21-26 recommended for faith
characters
27 " " intelligent characters
28 " " greedy characters
29 " " deluded/speculative
characters
30 " " intelligent characters
This group of ten has a more miscellaneous
character than the previous two groups. In practicing the first three recollections
(21-230 one recited the lists of qualities of each one of these.[6]
Or if the mind does not become concentrated in this way, one chooses one
particular quality and recites that silently and continuously (such as
"Buddho" or "Araham"). Rosaries are used in some places in connection with
practice of this sort. The recollections on virtue and generosity are specially
good to cultivate in one's old age. One reviews all the meritorious deeds
(pu??a) made by one in the course of life, and recollecting them
the mind becomes tranquil and happy, and having such a mental state at
the time of death, one is sure to be reborn in very favorable surroundings.
One cannot recollect the celestials (deva) except by hearsay unless
one has seen them. This practice is suitable for those who have increased
the range of their minds and so have made contact with other more subtle
beings. Death may be recollected by intelligent characters since
they will not be frightened at the prospects which this practice opens
up. It is a great incentive to practice now when one does not know
whether even one second from hence, one will be alive. The twenty-eighth
recollection -- on the body -- is for greedy characters, who need
to develop dispassion regarding the body. This is achieved by the analysis
of the body into thirty-two unbeautiful parts, and then by selecting one
or more of these and examining it. However, this practice comes to perfection
when with insight the body is illuminated and its various components are
clearly seen and their nature understood. The mindfulness of breathing
is recommended for calming and clearing the mind, and a person of almost
any temperament may practice it with benefit, though great care is needed
in the subtler ranges of this exercise. The breathing is never forced but
observed constantly with mindfulness, the point of concentration being
usually the nose-tip or nostrils. However, teachers vary in their practice
of it. The recollection of peace, says the great Acariya, is only of certain
benefit to those who have already experienced Nibbana, such as stream-enterers;
but others can gain some calm from contemplation of peacefulness. The peace
spoken of here is really Nibbana, and as one cannot recollect what one
has not known, if a worldling (puthujjana), this is a practice for
the Noble Ones (ariya).
Four Divine Abidings (Brahma-vihara)
31. friendliness *
..... {counteracts the stain of hatred, dislike}
32. compassion ..... {counteracts
callous indifference}
33. gladness (with others) .....
{counteracts envy}
34. equanimity ..... {counteracts
worry}
31 recommended for hate characters
Four States of Formlessness (arupa-bhava)
35. sphere of infinite space
36. " " infinite consciousness
37. " " nothingness
38. " " neither-perception-nor-non-perception
These formless absorptions cannot be
developed unless one has already perfected the four ordinary absorptions
of form. It is said that this group of four may be explored on the basis
of the fourth absorption (jhana). As few people are likely to have
experienced this, we pass on to:
Perception of the Loathsomeness of Food
39. While it is essential for the bhikkhu
who has to rely upon collected food (which is sometimes good and sometimes
not), lay people can also benefit from this practice, which Acariya Buddhaghosa
notes is for intelligent characters, and is designed to lessen,
and lead to the destruction of, greed and gluttony.
One Defining of the Four Great Elements
40. These are earth (solidity), water
(cohesion), fire (temperature), and air (movement), all of which characterize
our physical bodies. These elements may be perceived by an analysis based
upon the use of mindfulness.[7]
This practice is also said to be particularly fitted for the intelligent
character.
Those practices not mentioned in
connection with character are suited to anyone. As all of these practices
are aimed at the lessening and eventual destruction of the stains (kilesa),
one may appreciate how important they are thought in Buddhist training.
Where the stains are present, there the darkness of unknowing holds sway;
but where they are not found, there shines forth the wisdom and compassion
of Enlightenment.
Notes
1.
See The Mirror of the Dhamma, WHEEL No. 54 a/b. [Go
back]
2.
See The Practice of Lovingkindness (Metta), trans. ?anamoli, WHEEL
No. 7. [Go back]
3.
The tradition of "keeping the right side towards" respected persons and
objects has a psychological basis. Also note in English right (for side)
and right (good, correct). [Go back]
4.
See Nyanaponika, The Four Sublime States, WHEEL No. 6. [Go
back]
5.
Jataka No. 33, see translation issued by the Pali Text Society. [Go
back]
6.
See The Mirror of the Dhamma, WHEEL No. 54 a/b. [Go
back]
7.
See The Foundations of Mindfulness, trans. Nyanasatta, WHEEL No.
19, p. 15; and Ledi Sayadaw, A Manual of Insight, WHEEL No. 31/32,
pp. 25, 78. [Go back]
The Buddhist Publication Society
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Revised: 9 November 1998
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Update: 01-05-2001